Complexity, Artificial Life, and Artificial Intelligence.

The scientific fields of complexity, Artificial Life (ALife), and artificial intelligence (AI) share commonalities: historic, conceptual, methodological, and philosophical. Although their origins trace back to the 1940s birth of cybernetics, they were able to develop properly only as modern information technology became available. In this perspective, I offer a personal (and thus biased) account of the expectations and limitations of these fields, some of which have their roots in the limits of formal systems. I use interactions, self-organization, emergence, and balance to compare different aspects of complexity, ALife, and AI. Even when the trajectory of the article is influenced by my personal experience, the general questions posed (which outweigh the answers) will, I hope, be useful in aligning efforts in these fields toward overcoming-or accepting-their limits.