A comprehensive study of affordable “water-in-salt” electrolytes and their properties

The search for alternative electrolytes has been extremely topical in recent years with the “water-in-salt” electrolyte, especially, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI) coming to the fore in the context of high-voltage electrolytes. However, “water-in-LiTFSI” exhibits ultra-high cost and low ionic transport when compared with the aqueous lithium-halide, -nitrate as well as -sulphate salts (quoted as LiX). This work rediscovered the properties of a “water-in-salt” (LiX electrolytes) made from a variety of concentration from 1 m to saturated conditions. The changes of physical properties e.g., viscosity, pH, conductivity, density, and temperature during mixing were then reported. The electrochemical properties of electrolyte were tested using carbon-based materials (YEC-8A) as a model system (three electrode configuration), and the finding was then expanded to a coin cell supercapacitor for benchmarking the performance per cost unit. It has been found that the use of highly concentrated LiX electrolytes does not always enhance the potential window. LiBr and LiI shown the redox properties while increasing the concentration can speed up the redox process (voltage remains unchanged). Using superconcentrated LiCl can slightly expand the potential window; however, corrosion is the main task to be addressed. Besides, voltage expansion of LiNO₃ is found to be approximately 2.2 V, which is comparable to LiTFSI. The breakdown cost of the electrolyte also shows that LiTFSI exhibits the lowest energy density per cost unit (dollars), while LiNO₃ provides the most feasible cost in term of power density. We then marked that the electrolytes such as LiBr and LiI can be used as redox additive electrolytes. This work also shows the fundamental insight into the physical and electrochemical properties of LiX for possible alternative use as a cheap “water-in-salt” electrolyte in energy storage apart from LiTFSI.