Green synthesis of biocompatible silver nanoparticles using Trillium govanianum rhizome extract: comprehensive biological evaluation and in silico analysis†

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), using medicinal plants, is widely practiced due to the diverse bioactive compounds present in these plants, which can act synergistically with the AgNPs. Notably, the rhizome of Trillium govanianum Wall Ex. Royle is rich in bioactive phytochemicals such as steroids, saponins, glycosides, and fatty acids. This study aims to synthesize and characterize AgNPs mediated by the Trillium govanianum rhizome (^TGRAgNPs) and comprehensively investigate their biological activities. The results indicated that phytochemicals in the rhizome may function as reducing and capping agents in the synthesis of ^TGRAgNPs. Overall, this study presents a simple, rapid, cost-effective, and eco-friendly method for nanoparticle production. Subsequently, the ^TGRAgNPs were characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, DLS, zeta potential, SEM-EDX, and TEM analyses. GC-MS analysis of the extract identified several phytochemicals that might play crucial role in the synthesis of ^TGRAgNPs. Moreover, ^TGRAgNPs demonstrated significant antioxidant, anticancer (against HCT-116 cell lines), anti-inflammatory, and DNA protection activities. Additionally, hemolytic assay confirmed the non-toxic and hemo-compatible nature of ^TGRAgNPs at all tested concentrations. The findings suggest that the green synthesized ^TGRAgNPs have promising potential as biocompatible antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agents in biomedicine.