Per- and poly fluorinated substances: The poison in our waters – A call to action for India's aquatic future

In recent years, there has been a surge in environmental concerns stemming from per- and polyfluorinated substances, which are a diverse group of chemicals posing potential risks to human health and the environment, prompting global attention. Experts worldwide have convened to critically assess emerging data on these substances, encompassing their chemistry, fate, transport, exposure, and toxicity. Notably, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorosulfonic acid are amongst the most prevalent forms, prompting health advisories in various countries, including the United States of America, Germany, and other European nations. More than ∼5000 PFAS are used in the market for various applications. However, comprehensive data essential for both prospective and retrospective risk assessments remain lacking for most of these substances, with no regulatory standards established for these substances, leaving the extent of human exposure in India uncertain. Also, recent studies show that short- and long-chain PFAS have polluted major Indian rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna, Cauvery, and Krishna. This review consolidates research on per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) in India, including their occurrence, sources, and concentrations. It highlights uncertainties in regulatory policies and proposes strategies to address gaps and assess health risks. Recommendations include enhancing monitoring programs, developing regulatory guidelines, and advancing treatment technologies, with a focus on integrating conventional and innovative methods through interdisciplinary approaches.