Technological advancements for the management of chromium: An unavoidable pollutant for plants

Chromium (Cr) is a naturally occurring metal and an emerging heavy metal pollutant. With a surge in agricultural activities and industrial revolution, Cr accumulation is rising incrementally in the environment posing serious threats to all living entities. The toxicity and mobility of Cr (VI) is more compared to Cr (III) in living systems. Cr toxicity in soil and its further uptake in the plants affects the plants at pre-reproductive and post-reproductive stages and is manifested through changes in photosynthesis, seed formation, and seed germination primarily. High Cr levels in soil disturb the soil ecosystem further affecting water and nutrient uptake, which consequently affects many other physiological processes. The present paper is a comprehensive account of Cr toxicity in plants and highlights the most prevalent Cr remediation strategies based on physical, chemical, and biological methods. The use of novel methods using membrane systems like ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, etc. is increasingly being used in Cr remediation. The efficacy and efficiency of methods have been further evaluated. Contemporary research on Cr toxicity, the role of Cr in both plants and soil, and its ecological and environmental consequences on the environment have also been elucidated. However, with the advent of modern tools and techniques, Cr remediation methods have been modified. Research in the field of nanotechnology and information technology and further advancements in mitigating Cr remediation will be witnessed in the future.