Policing Gender, Race, and Place: A Multi-Level Assessment of Stop and Frisks

Literature on race and policing as well as place and policing has often neglected the role of gender. With an intersectional and ecological framework in mind, this study uses NYPD Stop, Question, and Frisk data to examine how the intersections of gender, race, and place simultaneously shape stop and frisks. Specifically, this study examines if suspect identity and characteristics of the stop location impact whether an officer pursues further action such as a frisk, search, summons, or arrest. Investigatory stops are not gender-blind, not uniformly experienced by all women, and do no operate identically across place. Evidence indicates that characteristics of place (concentrated disadvantage, racial composition) along with suspect race and gender might shape officers’ evaluations of suspiciousness and dangerousness. Research on policing practices and changes to policing procedures should consider how intersections of gender, race, and place shape officers’ actions.