Orthography does not hinder non-native production learning in children

Children are known to be fast learners due to their neural plasticity. Learning a non-native language (L2) requires the mastering of new production patterns. In classroom settings, learners are not only exposed to the acoustic input, but also to the unfamiliar grapheme–phoneme correspondences of the L2 orthography. We tested how 9–10-year-old children, with Finnish as a native language (L1), respond to a two-day listen-and-repeat training paradigm, where they simultaneously hear acoustic stimuli and see orthographic cues. In the procedure, non-words containing the L2 vowel /ʉ/ were presented simultaneously with an orthographic cue showing , guiding pronunciation towards the L1 vowel /u/ according to Finnish grapheme–phoneme correspondences. Earlier studies showed that Finnish adults rely on the orthographic cue over the acoustic one, leading them to produce /u/ instead of /ʉ/ when presented with the incongruent L1–L2 grapheme–phoneme correspondence ( – L1: /u/, L2: /ʉ/). Also, an earlier result from age-matched children receiving only acoustic input showed relatively fast pronunciation changes towards the target vowel. Our present results indicate clear and fast production learning of the non-native sound, and the misleading orthographic cue did not draw attention away from the target acoustic form. With orthographic cues, the participants learned to produce novel sounds faster than without them.