Pub Date : 2025-07-16eCollection Date: 2025-07-01DOI: 10.1177/02676583251339901
John Archibald
In this paper, I provide a general response to the points made in the commentaries. One of the major questions probed is whether gradient, variable output is diagnostic of gradient mental representations. I argue that this is not necessarily the case, and look to aspects of the learning theory (such as input processing, restructuring, and cue reweighting), as well as the architecture of the phonology/phonetics interface to account for such variation. I argue for a conservative, incremental restructuring process as the basis of the transition theory of Ln developmental paths. I reiterate the nature of the projection problem at various levels of the prosodic hierarchy when it comes to the input underdetermining the cues to abstract, algebraic phonological constituent labels. The question of whether Ln grammars are consistent with the structural properties of natural languages (i.e. constrained by UG) is discussed. I conclude with a presentation of the idea that linguistic representations can be considered wavelike superstates. This has the potential of capturing what has been described as the fuzziness of representations, as well as the benefit of unifying our treatment of mental and physical objects.
{"title":"Such sweet thunder.","authors":"John Archibald","doi":"10.1177/02676583251339901","DOIUrl":"10.1177/02676583251339901","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In this paper, I provide a general response to the points made in the commentaries. One of the major questions probed is whether gradient, variable output is diagnostic of gradient mental representations. I argue that this is not necessarily the case, and look to aspects of the learning theory (such as input processing, restructuring, and cue reweighting), as well as the architecture of the phonology/phonetics interface to account for such variation. I argue for a conservative, incremental restructuring process as the basis of the transition theory of L<i>n</i> developmental paths. I reiterate the nature of the projection problem at various levels of the prosodic hierarchy when it comes to the input underdetermining the cues to abstract, algebraic phonological constituent labels. The question of whether L<i>n</i> grammars are consistent with the structural properties of natural languages (i.e. constrained by UG) is discussed. I conclude with a presentation of the idea that linguistic representations can be considered wavelike superstates. This has the potential of capturing what has been described as the fuzziness of representations, as well as the benefit of unifying our treatment of mental and physical objects.</p>","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"41 3","pages":"587-604"},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12266589/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144660776","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-16eCollection Date: 2025-07-01DOI: 10.1177/02676583251334518
Heather Goad
Archibald's article makes a strong case for abstract symbolic representations in the phonological grammars of second language learners/users (L2ers). The evidence he brings to bear on this comes principally from the prosodic domain. However, the case for abstractness is hardest to defend in the segmental domain, specifically when it comes to motivating a role for features. The goal of this commentary is to show that L2 speech perception is mediated, in part, by features and thereby provide support for Archibald's claim. Two speech perception studies are discussed. The first study shows that the status of the feature [nasal] in vowels in the first language (L1) grammar, as contrastive (French) or allophonic (English), impacts naive perception of novel nasal vowels. French listeners successfully perceive the novel vowels; English listeners' success is hindered by the phonological status of [nasal] in the L1 grammar. The results are proposed to support a role for abstract phonological representations: for features; for the conditions under which they must be shared across segments; and for a theory of licensing that can capture the licensing potential of different prosodic positions. The second study shows that the absence of the feature [SG] from the L1 grammar of French negatively impacts the ability to perceive and build an appropriate representation for English /h/. The lack of [SG] is proposed to account for three types of behaviour displayed by L2ers: their failure to perceive [h] as distinct from Ø; their VOT values for 'voiced' and 'voiceless' stops which fall between those of L1 French and those of target L2 English; and their overapplication of aspiration to stops in sC clusters. It is shown that these patterns cohere under a phonological account, as features have a classificatory function and are thereby expected to shape phonological behaviour across multiple groups of segments.
{"title":"A role for features in speech perception.","authors":"Heather Goad","doi":"10.1177/02676583251334518","DOIUrl":"10.1177/02676583251334518","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Archibald's article makes a strong case for abstract symbolic representations in the phonological grammars of second language learners/users (L2ers). The evidence he brings to bear on this comes principally from the prosodic domain. However, the case for abstractness is hardest to defend in the segmental domain, specifically when it comes to motivating a role for features. The goal of this commentary is to show that L2 speech perception is mediated, in part, by features and thereby provide support for Archibald's claim. Two speech perception studies are discussed. The first study shows that the status of the feature [nasal] in vowels in the first language (L1) grammar, as contrastive (French) or allophonic (English), impacts naive perception of novel nasal vowels. French listeners successfully perceive the novel vowels; English listeners' success is hindered by the phonological status of [nasal] in the L1 grammar. The results are proposed to support a role for abstract phonological representations: for features; for the conditions under which they must be shared across segments; and for a theory of licensing that can capture the licensing potential of different prosodic positions. The second study shows that the absence of the feature [SG] from the L1 grammar of French negatively impacts the ability to perceive and build an appropriate representation for English /h/. The lack of [SG] is proposed to account for three types of behaviour displayed by L2ers: their failure to perceive [h] as distinct from Ø; their VOT values for 'voiced' and 'voiceless' stops which fall between those of L1 French and those of target L2 English; and their overapplication of aspiration to stops in sC clusters. It is shown that these patterns cohere under a phonological account, as features have a classificatory function and are thereby expected to shape phonological behaviour across multiple groups of segments.</p>","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"41 3","pages":"577-586"},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12266588/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144660775","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-05-28DOI: 10.1177/02676583241246147
David Tizón-Couto, David Lorenz
The cognitive entrenchment of frequent sequences comes as ‘chunking’ (holistic storage) and as ‘procedure strengthening’ (predicting elements in a sequence). A growing body of research shows effects of entrenchment of multi-word sequences in the native language, which is learned and shaped continuously and intuitively. But how do they affect second language (L2) speakers, whose language acquisition is more analytic but who nonetheless also learn through usage? The present study tests advanced English learners’ receptive processing of multi-word sequences with a word-monitoring experiment. Recognition of to in the construction V to Vinf was tested for full and reduced forms ([tʊ] vs. [ɾə]), conditioned by the general frequency of the V- to sequence and the transitional probability (TP) of to given the verb (V > to). The results are compared with those previously obtained from native speakers. Results show that recognition profits from surface frequency, but not from TP. Reduced forms delay recognition, but this is mitigated in high-frequency sequences. Unlike native speakers, advanced learners do not exhibit a chunking effect of high-frequency reduced forms, and no facilitating effect of TP. We attribute these findings to learners’ lesser experience with spontaneous speech and phonetic reduction. They recognize reduced forms less easily, show weaker entrenchment of holistic representations, and do not draw on the full range of probabilistic cues available to native speakers.
对频繁序列的认知巩固表现为 "分块"（整体存储）和 "程序强化"（预测序列中的元素）。越来越多的研究表明，多词序列的固化对母语的影响是持续和直观地学习和形成的。然而，第二语言（L2）学习者的语言学习更注重分析，但他们也通过使用进行学习，那么这些影响又是如何产生的呢？本研究通过单词监控实验测试了高级英语学习者对多单词序列的接受加工。测试了 V to Vinf 结构中的 to 的完整形式和简化形式（[tʊ] vs. [ɾə]），并以 V- to 序列的一般频率和给定动词 (V > to) 时 to 的过渡概率 (TP) 为条件。研究结果与之前从母语使用者那里获得的结果进行了比较。结果表明，表面频率对识别有帮助，但 TP 对识别没有帮助。低频形式会延迟识别，但在高频序列中这种延迟会得到缓解。与母语使用者不同的是，高级学习者没有表现出高频减缩形式的分块效应，也没有表现出 TP 的促进效应。我们将这些发现归因于学习者对自发语音和缩略语的经验较少。他们不太容易识别还原形式，对整体表征的巩固程度较弱，而且没有利用母语者所能获得的全部概率线索。
{"title":"Learning to predict: Second language perception of reduced multi-word sequences","authors":"David Tizón-Couto, David Lorenz","doi":"10.1177/02676583241246147","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241246147","url":null,"abstract":"The cognitive entrenchment of frequent sequences comes as ‘chunking’ (holistic storage) and as ‘procedure strengthening’ (predicting elements in a sequence). A growing body of research shows effects of entrenchment of multi-word sequences in the native language, which is learned and shaped continuously and intuitively. But how do they affect second language (L2) speakers, whose language acquisition is more analytic but who nonetheless also learn through usage? The present study tests advanced English learners’ receptive processing of multi-word sequences with a word-monitoring experiment. Recognition of to in the construction V to V<jats:sub>inf</jats:sub> was tested for full and reduced forms ([tʊ] vs. [ɾə]), conditioned by the general frequency of the V- to sequence and the transitional probability (TP) of to given the verb (V > to). The results are compared with those previously obtained from native speakers. Results show that recognition profits from surface frequency, but not from TP. Reduced forms delay recognition, but this is mitigated in high-frequency sequences. Unlike native speakers, advanced learners do not exhibit a chunking effect of high-frequency reduced forms, and no facilitating effect of TP. We attribute these findings to learners’ lesser experience with spontaneous speech and phonetic reduction. They recognize reduced forms less easily, show weaker entrenchment of holistic representations, and do not draw on the full range of probabilistic cues available to native speakers.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"49 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141171471","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-05-06DOI: 10.1177/02676583241246733
Daniel Vergara, Gilda Socarrás
This study contributes to the limited research on gender agreement processing of complex syntactic structures in the auditory modality. By examining learners at varying stages of second language (L2) development, we aim to identify the linguistic factors that facilitate this process. First language English – second language Spanish learners listened to temporarily ambiguous Spanish sentences containing relative clauses. In each case, the ambiguity could be resolved through gender agreement between an adjective and one of two competing nouns with gender mismatches. We assessed participant accuracy through aural comprehension questions. Our findings indicate that determiners and proficiency impact learners’ accuracy in the task. Specifically, they highlight the role of determiners in gender agreement processing in the absence of duplications as well as the impact of proficiency on the processing of noun endings with marked feminine gender. Additionally, we identify a pattern of increased accuracy in gender agreement processing in high attachment cases. We argue that this pattern challenges first language (L1) transfer assumptions and provides evidence of a ‘good enough’ processing strategy. This strategy relies on syntactic hierarchy and emerges as a response to complex task demands.
{"title":"High is good enough: Gender agreement and relative clause attachment in L2 auditory processing","authors":"Daniel Vergara, Gilda Socarrás","doi":"10.1177/02676583241246733","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241246733","url":null,"abstract":"This study contributes to the limited research on gender agreement processing of complex syntactic structures in the auditory modality. By examining learners at varying stages of second language (L2) development, we aim to identify the linguistic factors that facilitate this process. First language English – second language Spanish learners listened to temporarily ambiguous Spanish sentences containing relative clauses. In each case, the ambiguity could be resolved through gender agreement between an adjective and one of two competing nouns with gender mismatches. We assessed participant accuracy through aural comprehension questions. Our findings indicate that determiners and proficiency impact learners’ accuracy in the task. Specifically, they highlight the role of determiners in gender agreement processing in the absence of duplications as well as the impact of proficiency on the processing of noun endings with marked feminine gender. Additionally, we identify a pattern of increased accuracy in gender agreement processing in high attachment cases. We argue that this pattern challenges first language (L1) transfer assumptions and provides evidence of a ‘good enough’ processing strategy. This strategy relies on syntactic hierarchy and emerges as a response to complex task demands.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"62 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140883235","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-04-28DOI: 10.1177/02676583241246739
Marijn van Dijk, Wander Lowie, Nienke Smit, Marjolijn Verspoor, Paul van Geert
In the past decades, complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) has been used as an important framework for studying second language development. CDST is a metatheory of change and focuses on processes. Even though it has been broadly accepted as an inspiring dimension of research in psychology, sociology and second language development, some scholars have raised questions about the methodologies used, the interpretation of the data, and the nature of its claims. Specifically, Pallotti questioned whether CDST generates testable hypotheses, and criticized its position towards reductionism and generalizability, based on philosophical argumentations. The present article evaluates the issues addressed, reviews the work that has already been done, and looks ahead at future CDST applications to research in second language development, by exploring recent methodological developments in the field.
{"title":"Complex dynamic systems theory as a foundation for process-oriented research on second language development","authors":"Marijn van Dijk, Wander Lowie, Nienke Smit, Marjolijn Verspoor, Paul van Geert","doi":"10.1177/02676583241246739","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241246739","url":null,"abstract":"In the past decades, complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) has been used as an important framework for studying second language development. CDST is a metatheory of change and focuses on processes. Even though it has been broadly accepted as an inspiring dimension of research in psychology, sociology and second language development, some scholars have raised questions about the methodologies used, the interpretation of the data, and the nature of its claims. Specifically, Pallotti questioned whether CDST generates testable hypotheses, and criticized its position towards reductionism and generalizability, based on philosophical argumentations. The present article evaluates the issues addressed, reviews the work that has already been done, and looks ahead at future CDST applications to research in second language development, by exploring recent methodological developments in the field.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"78 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-04-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140811257","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-04-26DOI: 10.1177/02676583241240868
Jae Yung Song, Fred Eckman
Despite the abundance of research on the relationship between second language (L2) learners’ production and perception of target-language contrasts, the nature and details of this connection remain unclear. The aim of this study was to extend our understanding of the relationship by investigating whether learners who can produce L2 vowels with the same acoustic properties as those used by native speakers of the target language also perceive the vowels more accurately. To this end, we examined the production and perception of two English vowel contrasts (tense /i/ vs. lax /ɪ/, mid /ε/ vs. low /æ/) in 29 native-speakers of American English and 33 L2 learners of English from three native-language backgrounds: Korean, Portuguese, and Spanish. We found that the L2 learners who produced distinctions between the target vowels using the same acoustic properties as do native speakers of English had significantly better perception scores for these vowels compared to the learners who distinguished the vowels using a pattern of acoustic properties that is not used by native speakers. This was also true when their patterns were compared to the learners who did not make any acoustic distinctions at all. The findings provide compelling evidence that L2 learners’ production patterns are linked to their perception skills.
{"title":"The relationship between L2 learners’ production and perception of English vowels: The role of native-speaker acoustic patterns in production","authors":"Jae Yung Song, Fred Eckman","doi":"10.1177/02676583241240868","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241240868","url":null,"abstract":"Despite the abundance of research on the relationship between second language (L2) learners’ production and perception of target-language contrasts, the nature and details of this connection remain unclear. The aim of this study was to extend our understanding of the relationship by investigating whether learners who can produce L2 vowels with the same acoustic properties as those used by native speakers of the target language also perceive the vowels more accurately. To this end, we examined the production and perception of two English vowel contrasts (tense /i/ vs. lax /ɪ/, mid /ε/ vs. low /æ/) in 29 native-speakers of American English and 33 L2 learners of English from three native-language backgrounds: Korean, Portuguese, and Spanish. We found that the L2 learners who produced distinctions between the target vowels using the same acoustic properties as do native speakers of English had significantly better perception scores for these vowels compared to the learners who distinguished the vowels using a pattern of acoustic properties that is not used by native speakers. This was also true when their patterns were compared to the learners who did not make any acoustic distinctions at all. The findings provide compelling evidence that L2 learners’ production patterns are linked to their perception skills.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140800579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-04-10DOI: 10.1177/02676583241244604
Zhen Qin, Sang-Im Lee-Kim, Haifeng Qi
Past studies have found that the linguistic experience of previously-acquired languages, such as one’s native-language (L1) and second-language (L2) learning experience, modulates the perception of novel sounds from a third language (L3). Lexical tone in L3 is a good case for testing the influence of L1 or L2, as listeners with varying language backgrounds may use different pitch cues (pitch contour or height) in tone perception. The present study focuses on L2 learners of Mandarin whose L1 variety is either Seoul Korean (SK), a non-tonal stressless language, or Gyeongsang Korean (GK), a tonal pitch-accent language. Intermediate-to-advanced SK-speaking and GK-speaking L2 learners of Mandarin were recruited as target groups, and naive listeners of respective L1 varieties were recruited as control groups. The participants completed an AX forced-choice tone discrimination task. Four Cantonese tones, one rising tone and three level tones, were used. Contour–level and level–level tonal contrasts were target tone pairs, allowing for testing the primary use of pitch contour and pitch height, respectively. The results showed that the two groups of naive listeners had greater accuracy in discriminating level–level than contour–level tonal contrasts. In contrast, L2 learners, independent of their L1 varieties, showed higher accuracy in discriminating contour–level than level–level tonal contrasts. The L2 learners’ perceptual pattern is consistent with Mandarin listeners, as reported in previous work. Taken together, the findings provide evidence for a possible developmental change in which Korean-speaking L2 learners might have a perceptual cue shift from pitch height to pitch contour through their L2 experience in Mandarin. The findings about the role of L2 proficiency in Mandarin further supported the effect of L2 experience on learners’ increased use of pitch contour.
{"title":"The effect of second-language learning experience on Korean listeners’ use of pitch cues in the perception of Cantonese tones","authors":"Zhen Qin, Sang-Im Lee-Kim, Haifeng Qi","doi":"10.1177/02676583241244604","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241244604","url":null,"abstract":"Past studies have found that the linguistic experience of previously-acquired languages, such as one’s native-language (L1) and second-language (L2) learning experience, modulates the perception of novel sounds from a third language (L3). Lexical tone in L3 is a good case for testing the influence of L1 or L2, as listeners with varying language backgrounds may use different pitch cues (pitch contour or height) in tone perception. The present study focuses on L2 learners of Mandarin whose L1 variety is either Seoul Korean (SK), a non-tonal stressless language, or Gyeongsang Korean (GK), a tonal pitch-accent language. Intermediate-to-advanced SK-speaking and GK-speaking L2 learners of Mandarin were recruited as target groups, and naive listeners of respective L1 varieties were recruited as control groups. The participants completed an AX forced-choice tone discrimination task. Four Cantonese tones, one rising tone and three level tones, were used. Contour–level and level–level tonal contrasts were target tone pairs, allowing for testing the primary use of pitch contour and pitch height, respectively. The results showed that the two groups of naive listeners had greater accuracy in discriminating level–level than contour–level tonal contrasts. In contrast, L2 learners, independent of their L1 varieties, showed higher accuracy in discriminating contour–level than level–level tonal contrasts. The L2 learners’ perceptual pattern is consistent with Mandarin listeners, as reported in previous work. Taken together, the findings provide evidence for a possible developmental change in which Korean-speaking L2 learners might have a perceptual cue shift from pitch height to pitch contour through their L2 experience in Mandarin. The findings about the role of L2 proficiency in Mandarin further supported the effect of L2 experience on learners’ increased use of pitch contour.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"49 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-04-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140576055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-21DOI: 10.1177/02676583241227709
Janne Bondi Johannessen, Björn Lundquist, Yulia Rodina, Eirik Tengesdal, Nina Hagen Kaldhol, Emel Türker, Valantis Fyndanis
The present study examines grammatical gender knowledge in offline production (gender marking on indefinite articles) and online gender processing (visual world paradigm) in adult second language (L2) learners of Norwegian with three different first languages (L1s): Greek, Russian, and Turkish. In particular, it investigates the role of the following factors: (1) presence vs. absence of grammatical gender in L1 (Norwegian, Greek and Russian have gender, whereas Turkish does not), (2) lexical gender congruency, (3) structural similarity between L1 and L2 in the realization of gender, and (4) proficiency in L2. In offline production, no difference was found between the three L2 groups: they all overused the default gender (masculine). However, L1 effects were observed in the eye-tracking task, where the high-proficiency L1 Greek and L1 Russian speakers showed earlier and more prominent signs of predictive gender processing compared to the high-proficiency L1 Turkish speakers. There were no effects of lexical gender congruency or structural similarity. This suggests that, when it comes to predictive gender processing, what matters is proficiency and the presence vs. absence of grammatical gender in the L1. We interpret the findings in the context of current approaches to predictive processing emphasizing the role of cue reliability and utility.
{"title":"Cross-linguistic effects in grammatical gender assignment and predictive processing in L1 Greek, L1 Russian, and L1 Turkish speakers of Norwegian as a second language","authors":"Janne Bondi Johannessen, Björn Lundquist, Yulia Rodina, Eirik Tengesdal, Nina Hagen Kaldhol, Emel Türker, Valantis Fyndanis","doi":"10.1177/02676583241227709","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241227709","url":null,"abstract":"The present study examines grammatical gender knowledge in offline production (gender marking on indefinite articles) and online gender processing (visual world paradigm) in adult second language (L2) learners of Norwegian with three different first languages (L1s): Greek, Russian, and Turkish. In particular, it investigates the role of the following factors: (1) presence vs. absence of grammatical gender in L1 (Norwegian, Greek and Russian have gender, whereas Turkish does not), (2) lexical gender congruency, (3) structural similarity between L1 and L2 in the realization of gender, and (4) proficiency in L2. In offline production, no difference was found between the three L2 groups: they all overused the default gender (masculine). However, L1 effects were observed in the eye-tracking task, where the high-proficiency L1 Greek and L1 Russian speakers showed earlier and more prominent signs of predictive gender processing compared to the high-proficiency L1 Turkish speakers. There were no effects of lexical gender congruency or structural similarity. This suggests that, when it comes to predictive gender processing, what matters is proficiency and the presence vs. absence of grammatical gender in the L1. We interpret the findings in the context of current approaches to predictive processing emphasizing the role of cue reliability and utility.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"9 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140199519","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-15DOI: 10.1177/02676583241230854
Tim Joris Laméris, Maki Kubota, Tanja Kupisch, Jennifer Cabrelli, Neal Snape, Jason Rothman
Few studies have examined global foreign accent (GFA) in bilingual children, and little is known about how GFA changes over time and what factors determine change. Here, we examine GFA trajectories in Japanese–English bilingual returnees (Japanese children who returned to Japan after having lived in a majority English environment for several years). In two accent-rating tasks, first language (L1) speakers of English or Japanese rated returnee speech excerpts recorded at three time points over a five-year period. The ratings show a decrease in Japanese GFA one year after return to Japan, and an increase in English GFA, but only five years after return. These findings suggest rapid re-exposure effects of the L1 and relatively stable maintenance of the second language (L2). Changes varied by L2 English age of onset (AoO) and exposure to L2 English while abroad, suggesting a crucial role for these individual factors in transitory contexts such as returnee bilingualism.
{"title":"Language change in Japanese–English bilingual returnee children over the course of five years: Evidence from accent-rating","authors":"Tim Joris Laméris, Maki Kubota, Tanja Kupisch, Jennifer Cabrelli, Neal Snape, Jason Rothman","doi":"10.1177/02676583241230854","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241230854","url":null,"abstract":"Few studies have examined global foreign accent (GFA) in bilingual children, and little is known about how GFA changes over time and what factors determine change. Here, we examine GFA trajectories in Japanese–English bilingual returnees (Japanese children who returned to Japan after having lived in a majority English environment for several years). In two accent-rating tasks, first language (L1) speakers of English or Japanese rated returnee speech excerpts recorded at three time points over a five-year period. The ratings show a decrease in Japanese GFA one year after return to Japan, and an increase in English GFA, but only five years after return. These findings suggest rapid re-exposure effects of the L1 and relatively stable maintenance of the second language (L2). Changes varied by L2 English age of onset (AoO) and exposure to L2 English while abroad, suggesting a crucial role for these individual factors in transitory contexts such as returnee bilingualism.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"38 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140147717","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-11DOI: 10.1177/02676583241232221
Raquel Fernández Fuertes, Tamara Gómez Carrero, Juana M. Liceras
Codeswitching has been used as a tool to investigate how the properties of the two language systems interact in the bilingual mind with relatively few studies investigating bilingual children. We target two groups of L1-Spanish–L2-English children in Spain to address language activation and language inhibition in the processing of codeswitching between a determiner (DET) and a noun (N). We investigate how the mental representation of the formal features involved is responsible for the sensitivity to grammatical gender, which in turn affects how bilinguals’ language activation and inhibition processes are at play and shape processing. We target both the directionality of the switch (English-DET–Spanish-N vs. Spanish-DET–English-N) and the type of implicit gender agreement mechanism (in the case of Spanish-DET–English-N switches) by using offline acceptability judgment data and eyetracking during reading data. Results suggest lower processing costs of English DET switches and higher ones of non-congruent Spanish DET switches. We interpret the preference for classifying the non-gendered Ns along the lines of the gendered Ns in the gendered language as evidence for the integrated representation hypothesis which states that both Ns depicting the same concept are connected in the mind of the bilingual.
代码转换一直被用作研究两种语言系统的特性如何在双语思维中相互作用的工具，但针对双语儿童的研究相对较少。我们以西班牙的两组第一语言-西班牙语-第二语言-英语儿童为研究对象，探讨他们在处理定语（DET）和名词（N）之间的代码转换时的语言激活和语言抑制问题。我们研究了相关形式特征的心理表征如何导致对语法性别的敏感性，进而影响双语者的语言激活和语言抑制过程如何发挥作用并影响加工过程。我们利用离线可接受性判断数据和阅读过程中的眼动跟踪数据，对切换的方向性（英语-DET-西班牙语-N 与西班牙语-DET-英语-N）和隐含性别一致机制的类型（在西班牙语-DET-英语-N 切换的情况下）进行了研究。结果表明，英语 DET 切换的处理成本较低，而不一致的西班牙语 DET 切换的处理成本较高。我们将双语者倾向于按照性别语言中的性别N分类解释为综合表征假说的证据，该假说认为描述同一概念的两个N在双语者的头脑中是联系在一起的。
{"title":"Activation and local inhibition in the bilingual child’s processing of codeswitching","authors":"Raquel Fernández Fuertes, Tamara Gómez Carrero, Juana M. Liceras","doi":"10.1177/02676583241232221","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241232221","url":null,"abstract":"Codeswitching has been used as a tool to investigate how the properties of the two language systems interact in the bilingual mind with relatively few studies investigating bilingual children. We target two groups of L1-Spanish–L2-English children in Spain to address language activation and language inhibition in the processing of codeswitching between a determiner (DET) and a noun (N). We investigate how the mental representation of the formal features involved is responsible for the sensitivity to grammatical gender, which in turn affects how bilinguals’ language activation and inhibition processes are at play and shape processing. We target both the directionality of the switch (English-DET–Spanish-N vs. Spanish-DET–English-N) and the type of implicit gender agreement mechanism (in the case of Spanish-DET–English-N switches) by using offline acceptability judgment data and eyetracking during reading data. Results suggest lower processing costs of English DET switches and higher ones of non-congruent Spanish DET switches. We interpret the preference for classifying the non-gendered Ns along the lines of the gendered Ns in the gendered language as evidence for the integrated representation hypothesis which states that both Ns depicting the same concept are connected in the mind of the bilingual.","PeriodicalId":47414,"journal":{"name":"Second Language Research","volume":"26 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2024-03-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140106805","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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