Representative Bureaucracy and Perceptions of Social Exclusion in Europe: Evidence From 27 Countries

Representative bureaucracy theory predicts that mirroring social groups in the composition of the bureaucracy will lead to inclusive policies and less overall exclusion of diverse individuals. While supporting evidence on policy outcomes is abundant, findings on subjective perceptions are mixed. This study tests three hypotheses linking representative bureaucracy to perceived same-group discrimination in the general population. It introduces a novel multidimensional index of bureaucratic underrepresentation, and uses mixed effects hierarchical models to approximate answers. Exploratory findings suggest an “awareness” mechanism may explain the counterintuitive relationship between underrepresentation and feelings of exclusion, in which more diverse public sectors develop alongside higher awareness of discrimination.