The application of 3D printing in neurosurgery: present and future

Background: For about 20 years we have been observing the development of three-dimensional (3D) printing. The aim of this study was to systematize the current knowledge on the use of 3D printing technology in neu - rosurgery and to attempt an outline the future paths of its development. Material and methods: The analysis was based on English-language literature from 2017-2021 indexed in the Mendeley and Scopus databases. Results: The application of 3D printing in neurosurgery concerns: 1) teaching students, 2) training of residents neurosurgeons, 3) individualized surgery planning, 4) dedicated cranial and spinal implants, 5) the future of 3D printing in neurosurgical implantology. There were 5 main neurosurgery subtopics in which 3D printing was used: “vascular neurosurgery” (31%), “skull, cranial neurosurgery” (22.4%), “neuro-oncology” (19.3%), “spine” (14.3%) and “others” (13%). The number of published articles has been steadily increasing by 11-33% annually. Conclusion: 3D printing has an enormous potential for clinical use and in the we will continue to observe its dynamic development. In neurosurgery 3D prints are currently most commonly used for didactic purposes as detailed anatomical models, for training residents and young surgeons and by specialists for the simulation of complex or innovative surgeries. The future of the use of additive 3D printing in neurosurgery lies in the biologi - cal 3D printing, the creation of artificial organs and the development of biological implants in tissue engineering.