Temporal variation in nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes from an oil palm plantation in Indonesia: An ecosystem-scale analysis

The rapidly growing areal extent of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plantations and their high fertilizer input raises concerns about their role as substantial N₂O sources. In this study, we present the first eddy covariance (EC) measurements of ecosystem-scale N₂O fluxes in an oil palm plantation and combine them with vented soil chamber measurements of point-scale soil N₂O fluxes. Based on EC measurements during the period August 2017 to April 2019, the studied oil palm plantation in the tropical lowlands of Jambi Province (Sumatra, Indonesia) is a high source of N₂O, with average emission of 0.32 ± 0.003 g N₂O-N m⁻² year⁻¹ (149.85 ± 1.40 g CO₂-equivalent m⁻² year⁻¹). Compared to the EC-based N₂O flux, average chamber-based soil N₂O fluxes (0.16 ± 0.047 g N₂O-N m⁻² year⁻¹, 74.93 ± 23.41 g CO₂-equivalent m⁻² year⁻¹) are significantly (~49%, p < 0.05) lower, suggesting that important N₂O pathways are not covered by the chamber measurements. Conventional chamber-based N₂O emission estimates from oil palm up-scaled to ecosystem level might therefore be substantially underestimated. We show that the dynamic gas exchange of the oil palm canopy with the atmosphere and the oil palms' response to meteorological and soil conditions may play an important but yet widely unexplored role in the N₂O budget of oil palm plantations. Diel pattern of N₂O fluxes showed strong causal relationships with photosynthesis-related variables, i.e. latent heat flux, incoming photosynthetically active radiation and gross primary productivity during day time, and ecosystem respiration and soil temperature during night time. At longer time scales (>2 days), soil temperature and water-filled pore space gained importance on N₂O flux variation. These results suggest a plant-mediated N₂O transport, providing important input for modelling approaches and strategies to mitigate the negative impact of N₂O emissions from oil palm cultivation through appropriate site selection and management.