The Introduction of Chemical Dyes into Food in the Nineteenth Century

This article examines the introduction of chemical dyes into food in the nineteenth century in four different countries: the United States, Britain, Germany, and France. From the early 1860s, chemists produced aniline and azo dyes from coal tar on an industrial scale for the burgeoning European textile industry. However, by the end of the century, hundreds of the new dyes were also being added to food, a use for which they were not designed. This article examines the disagreements among chemists over whether these new chemical substances should be seen as legitimate food ingredients or as food adulterants. This was a period when chemists were establishing themselves as professionals, with chemistry being promoted as a science capable of transforming everyday commodities and solving public health issues. However, chemists’ attempts to mediate the use of chemical dyes as food coloring were complicated by a lack of consensus within the chemical community about how to detect the use of such dyes in food and how to test their toxicity. Chemists also were conflicted in their response to the debate depending on whether they were employed by food or dye manufacturers, or working as food inspectors for the state and local authorities. In their efforts to gain authority as food experts, chemists found themselves in a crowded market of interested parties, including food manufacturers, consumers, and politicians. The article describes the diverse opinions of chemists, manufacturers, consumers, and regulators in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, and the varied regulatory responses in these countries to the use of new chemical dyes in food.