Dome of Heaven: the role of esoteric Buddhism in the Hall of Heavenly Kings at Mogao

ABSTRACT Standing atop the cliff face of the Mogao Caves is a series of stupas, the most complete of which is the so-called Hall of the Heavenly Kings 天王堂. The stupa is remarkable for its domed ceiling and esoteric iconography that contrast dramatically with cave architecture at Mogao. Although identified as the ‘Hall of Heavenly Kings,’ disagreement persists about the structure’s name, dating, and visual program. This article reviews the conflicting evidence previously presented by scholars to propose an alternative hypothesis based on new research exploring esoteric Buddhism and art at Dunhuang. As with the majority of esoteric art in Mogao Caves from the Tang and Five Dynasties, this research also supports the hypothesis that the content and pictorial program in the Hall of Heavenly Kings are in fact not Tibetan-influenced, but rather signify the tradition of the ‘three ācāryas’ of Tang China (Śubhākarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra), ultimately derived from the Pallava Dynasty and, crucially, imported into the Hexi Corridor before the Tibetan conquest.