口味问题:西藏的茶、鸦片和贸易垄断

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摘要

这篇文章记录了英属印度政府试图打破中国对西藏茶叶贸易的垄断,但最终失败了,当时英国正在取代清朝成为全球舞台上最大的茶叶出口国。我通过分析19世纪末至20世纪初在西藏和喜马拉雅东部建立的贸易市场来探索这段短暂的历史,这些贸易市场不仅是两个强大帝国之间的帝国贸易中心,而且是被占领的领土,旨在形成整个西藏高原和高地陆地网络的关键节点。在将印度茶叶推向西藏市场失败后,英国驻印度政府尝试在英国控制的西藏市场销售鸦片,从而标志着与中国在各个市场领域的商品贸易竞争的重要连续性。中国和印度茶叶之间的竞争被大量记录下来,作为一种优势地位和工业现代化的叙述,迅速重塑了全球帝国等级制度,以及当地的社会文化关系(包括劳动力积累)。相比之下,英国在西藏的失败凸显出,仅靠军事化的边境开拓,就在整个喜马拉雅地区推动了市场资本主义的发展。这篇文章展示了战争宣传和帝国拓荒的迫切性如何不仅塑造了西藏茶叶消费的空间和文化框架,而且塑造了喜马拉雅“边疆”的领土实体,甚至是“西藏”本身。
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A Matter of Taste: Tea, Opium, and Trade Monopolies in Tibet
This article chronicles the British Indian state’s attempt, and eventual failure, to break the Chinese monopoly on trading tea in Tibet at the very time Britain replaced Qing China as the largest exporter of tea on the global stage. I explore this short history by analysing the trade marts established in Tibet and the eastern Himalayas between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, not simply as centres of imperial trade between two powerful empires, but as occupied territories meant to form key nodes on land networks throughout the Tibetan plateau and highlands. Following its failure to push Indian tea into Tibetan markets, the British government in India experimented with the sale of opium in British-controlled marts in Tibet, thus marking important continuities in commodity trade competition with China across market spheres. The competition between Chinese and Indian tea has been richly documented as a narrative of ascendancy and industrial modernisation that rapidly reshaped global imperial hierarchies as well as local socio-cultural relationships (including those of labour accumulation). By contrast, the British failure in Tibet highlights how militarised frontier-making alone advanced market capitalism throughout the trans-Himalayan theatre. This article demonstrates how the exigencies of war propaganda and imperial frontier-making shaped not only the spatial and cultural frames of tea consumption in Tibet, but the territorial entities of the Himalayan “borderlands”, and indeed, “Tibet” itself.
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