Ciprofloxacin properties, impacts, and remediation

Abstract

The discovery of antibiotics has led to a major development in providing treatment for different types of bacterial infections. Among the numerous types of antimicrobial agents used, fluoroquinolones have shown potential activity against various harmful pathogens, which cause various kinds of infections pertaining to skin, urinary tract, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract as well as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Among all classes of fluoroquinolones, ciprofloxacin is the most used and shows broad-spectrum activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The pharmacokinetic profile is higher in comparison with other antibiotics. It inhibits DNA replication and transcription. Although the use of ciprofloxacin has helped in decreasing the death rate, its increased usage has caused escalated contamination in soil and water. This has severely affected humans, plants, animals, and microbes. As ciprofloxacin does not immediately biodegrade, therefore, it can easily be found in soil and water sources. The toxicity of ciprofloxacin causes the development of resistance and the generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress among living organisms. It also impacts the reproductive system of fishes and amphibians and plant physiology. In order to remediate the antibiotics from the environment a recent technique, phytoremediation has attracted researchers, which may provide a method for the removal of antibiotics. The present review focuses on the physical and pharmacokinetics properties of ciprofloxacin, its action mechanism, its toxicological effects, effect on microbial community, and various other living organisms along with a discussion of remediation of ciprofloxacin.