Dawn of the War on Steroids

Abstract

AbstractIn May 1987, the U.S. Attorney’s Office filed a federal indictment naming 36 co-conspirators in the largest anabolic steroid trafficking ring in history. A two-year federal investigation revealed a $100 million black market operating in the continental United States, of which an alleged 70% was supplied by a rag-tag trio of would-be drug barons: David Jenkins, an Olympic silver medallist; Dan Duchaine, a successful author and renowned steroid authority; and William Dillon, an aeronautical engineer from the Midwest. Much like alcohol bootleggers in the Prohibition Era (1920–1933), the men capitalized on a void left in the market by increased government regulation. In the mid-1980s, a 20-year drug review campaign spearheaded by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration culminated in the removal all anabolic steroids from the pharmaceutical market; a host of widely-used substances excised in one fell swoop. Revelations of systemic drug use in the Olympic Movement begot a paradigm shift in anti-doping enforcement in the early 1980s; however, no such shifts occurred in the legislative agenda. It was only after the ring was dismantled that American policy makers began to take notice, commencing in earnest a war on steroids that continues to rage on.Keywords: Anabolic steroidsperformance-enhancing drugsdrug traffickingcriminal conspiracyWar on DrugsFDAFBIDavid JenkinsDan DuchaineUnderground Steroid Handbook Data AvailabilityThe author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the findings of this study are available upon request via the corresponding author.Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 Cerisse Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought for Steroid Sales’, United Press International, May 11, 1985; and John Goodbody, ‘A Sport Facing New Threat of Banishment’, The Times (London), January 31, 1990.2 Ibid; ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared After Pleading Guilty’, United Press International, August 26, 1985; Fitton had been arrested two years earlier at the Atlanta Airport with 22,000 doses of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH). The following year he was convicted and received a two-year suspended sentence and five years probation for the unlawful possession of a pharmaceutical product. For further reading, see David Granger, ‘A Steroid Story: Sandler Thought Drugs were a Way to the Big Time’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985.3 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, Pub. L. No.75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938), 49, 396.4 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019. Halpern agreed to several recorded phone interviews with the author, and claimed to have clear memories of his early years at the US Attorney’s Office. He was employed as an Assistant US Attorney in San Diego for more than thirty-five years, the first five of which were largely devoted to prosecuting steroid-related offenses.5 Ibid.6 Ibid.7 For several years the FDA had been tightening regulations on anabolic steroids, imploring pharmaceutical companies to substantiate claims of their legitimate medical uses. See for reference Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong., 2nd sess., ‘Prepared Statement of Ronald G. Chesemore’, May 17, 1990, 32–33; while anabolic steroids were regulated by the FDA the United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, at the time the drugs were not scheduled. See for reference The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812, A-C.8 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.9 Granger, ‘A Steroid Story’, The Alabama Journal, August 1, 1985; and Anderson, ‘Powerlifter Sought’, United Press International, May 11, 1985.10 International Powerlifting Federation, ‘World Women’s Powerlifting Championships’, accessed September 16, 2019, https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/results/worlds/worldpowerlifting.info/worldpowerlifting.info/IPF_Powerlifting_Senior_Women_1980-2006.htm; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.11 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and David Granger and Alan Schmodtke, ‘Steroid Dealer Linked to AU’, The Alabama Journal, July 30, 1985.12 Shaun Assael, Steroid Nation: Juiced Home-Run Totals, Anti-Aging Miracles, and a Hercules in Every High School: The Secret History of America’s True Drug Addiction (New York, NY: ESPN Books, 2007), 13.13 ‘The Strength Coach at the University of California’, The Associated Press, December 18, 1985.14 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.15 Terry Todd, ‘Anabolic Steroids: The Gremlins of Sport’, Journal of Sport History 7, no. 1 (1987): 104; Todd cites an interview with Georgia District Attorney Clifford A. Stitcher as his source on Fitton’s jail stint.16 ‘A British Weightlifter Who Disappeared’, United Press International, August 26, 1985.17 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.18 Ibid.; and Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘Drugs that may Build Bulk Pull Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.19 William Oscar Johnson, ‘Steroids: A Problem of Huge Dimensions’, Sports Illustrated, May 13, 1985.20 Ivor Davis, ‘Operation Overlord of the Drug Ring: How a Tenacious Attorney Named ‘Bulldog’ Halpern Tracked Down Mr. X, alias David Jenkins, the British Olympic Sprinter Turned Drug Runner, Now Awaiting Sentence in the US’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988; and John Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler: When the Quest for Big Muscles Turns into a Passion for Big Money’, Los Angeles Times Magazine, April 24, 1988.21 United States of America v. David Jenkins, Juan Javier Macklis, Daniel Duchaine, William P. Dillon, James M. Insko, Robert Wantz, Jr., David Grigus, Leonard T. Swirda, Toivol Mansen, Michael MacDonald, Michael Marzella, Lon Zeigler, Jeffrey Golini, Normand Bergland, John Sleconich, Mark Depew, Steven Henneberry, Patrick Jacobs, Jeffrey Jarrison, Thomas Binns, Gerald Jones, Steven Marx, Steven Hein, Dennis J. Motte, Garry de Paepe, Vito Elefante, Gil R. Thompson, Rafael Lepe-Duenas, Samuel Martinez-Moreno, Jose Zapata, Marco Macklis, Culberto Lopez, Fito Alvarez, United Pharmaceuticals, Laboratorios Milano de Mexico, United States District Court Southern District of California, Criminal Case no. 87-0491-JLI, May 20, 1987; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; the author obtained a copy of the federal indictment from Halpern, the lead prosecutor for each of the thirty-six co-defendants. For details on David Jenkins and Dan Duchaine, see Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Richard Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver to Drugs to Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; and Alessandro Donati, ‘World Traffic in Doping Substances’, 30–1, https://www.wada.ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/WADA_Donati_Report_On_Trafficking_2007.pdf (accessed August 10, 2019).22 Michelle Kaufman, ‘Hurricanes’ Strength Coach Is Among 34 Indicted Nationwide for Smuggling Steroids’, The Tampa Bay Times, May 22, 1987; and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times (London), February 11, 1988.23 Congressional hearings discussing proposed regulations on anabolic steroids make specific mention of the smuggling ring led by Jenkins. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Restriction Act of 1989: Hearings Before the House Committee on the Judiciary, 101st Cong. (1989), 8; and The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, 40–3.24 The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, H.R. 5210, 21 USC 333a., 100th Cong. (1988), sec. 2402, 4230.25 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B); and The Controlled Substance Act of 1970, article 812 (B-2), 523. Drugs listed under Schedule III of the Act must have a moderate potential for abuse, a currently accepted medical application, and addictive properties, both physical and psychological. For further reading see Richard Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, Fourth Edition (Sudbury, MN: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005), 147–54.26 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.27 Donati, ‘World Trafficking on Doping Substances’, 30.28 A search of the Lexis Nexis database and other news archives found hundreds of articles covering the case. Most were written between the conspirators’ indictments and sentencing, and can be found throughout this chapter. For further reading see Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14–15; Rob Beamish, Steroids: A New Look at Performance Enhancing Drugs (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2011), 136; and David E. Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO LLC, 2018), 92.29 Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Richard I.G. Holt, Ioulietta Erotokritou-Mulligan, and Peter H. Sönksen, ‘The History of Doping and Growth Hormone Abuse in Sport’, Growth Hormone and IGF Research 19 (2009): 322.30 United States Food Drug and Cosmetic Act, 49, 396.31 Ibid., 42–3, 46, 49.32 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 94; John Fair, ‘Isometrics or Steroids: Exploring New Frontiers of Strength in the Early 1960s’, Journal of Sport History 20 (1993): 1–24, the author notes Ciba Pharmaceuticals patented the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone in around 1955, and in 1958 released it under the trade name Dianabol. In fact, while it is generally accepted among scholars that Dianabol was the first anabolic steroid marketed it was not the first anabolic steroid synthesized from testosterone. In William Llewellyn, Anabolics (Jupiter, FL: Molecular Nutrition, 2011), 14, the author correctly notes that Boldenone Undecylenate was the first anabolic steroid, first patented by Ciba pharmaceuticals in 1949. Incidentally, Norethandrolone was the first anabolic steroid approved for medical use, in 1956, under the brand name Nilevar. For further reading see Francois Chast, ‘A History of Drug Discovery: From First Steps of Chemistry to Achievements in Molecular Pharmacology’, in The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry, Third Edition, ed. Patricia Wermuth (London: Academic Press, 2008), 34.33 Edward B. Williams, ‘Exemption from the Requirement of Adequate Directions for Use in the Labeling of Drugs’, Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law Quarterly 2 (1947): 155; and The United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Reports Vol. 71, No. 11 (Washington, DC: 1956), 1155.34 Durham-Humphrey Amendments of 1951, Pub. L. No. 82-215, §1, 65 Stat. 648, 648 (1951); and United States Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed October 10, 2019).35 See for reference United States Food and Drug Administration, Approved Prescription Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalent Evaluations 3rd Edition (Washington, DC: The United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1982), A-5.36 United States General Services Administration, ‘Drugs for Human Use: Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, Federal Register 35, no. 122 (1970): 10328; and Jean Forcroy, ‘Designer Steroids: Past, Present, and Future’, Current Opinion on Endocrinology and Diabetes 13 (2006): 307.37 Peter N. Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List: The Story and Reflections’, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 5, no. 3 (1981): 363; and The US Food and Drug Administration, ‘FDA’s Evolving Regulatory Powers Part III: Drugs and Foods Under the 1938 Act and Its Amendments’, https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/fdas-evolving-regulatory-powers/part-iii-drugs-and-foods-under-1938-act-and-its-amendments (accessed August 10, 2019).38 Leslie Pray and Sally Robinson, Challenges for the FDA: The Future of Drug Safety, Workshop Summary (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007), 14.39 Horvath, ‘The DESI Hit List’, 363–4; and National Academy of Sciences, ‘The Drug Efficacy Study of the National Research Council’s Division of Medical Sciences, 1966-1969’, http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/history/archives/collections/des-1966-1969-1.html#series_3 (accessed August 4, 2019).40 Ibid.41 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids, Drug Efficacy Study Implementation’, 10328.42 Ibid.43 Ibid.44 Nicholas Wade, ‘Anabolic Steroids: Doctor’s Denounce Them, but Athletes Aren’t Listening’, Science, New Series 176, no. 4042 (1977): 1401.45 United States Congress, ‘The Drug Problem: Message from the President’, 91st Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record 115, pt. 14 (July 14, 1984): 19353–4.46 Pennsylvania Crime Mobilization Conference, ‘Address by the Honorable John N. Mitchell, Attorney General of the United States’, Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, December 3, 1969.47 The Controlled Substances Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91–513, 84 Stat. (1970), article 812 (A-C); the Act was passed as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse and Prevention Control Act of 1970. Viewed as the incipient action in Nixon’s War on Drugs, the Act created a taxonomical system for drugs listed in the United States Pharmacopeia based on dependence-forming properties, potential for abuse, and medical applications. Drugs were evaluated then classified in one of five schedules, with Schedule I comprising substances with high abuse-potential and little or no medical use. Correspondingly, drugs under Schedule V were deemed to have legitimate medical uses and little or no potential for abuse or dependency. For a more comprehensive summary of this legislation, see Robert C. Bonner, and Gene R. Haislip, A Security Outline of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 (Washington, DC: The United States Drug Enforcement Administration, 1991).48 Abood, Pharmacy Practice and the Law, 184.49 In the original legislation and subsequent amendments over the following two decades, anabolic steroids were not listed under any of the five schedules. It was not until 1990 that the drugs were codified as Schedule III substances. See for reference The Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, H.R. 4658, 101 Cong. (1990), sec. 2(A-C), 3(B).50 Nixon used this phrasing in a presidential address in January 1972. See for reference Thomas J. Johnson, Wayne Wanta, Timothy Boudreau, Janet Blank-Libra, Killian Schaffer, and Sally Turner, ‘Influence Dealers: A Path Analysis Model of Agenda Building during Richard Nixon's War on Drugs’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73, no. 1 (1996): 184.51 Bil Gilbert, ‘Drug Use and Abuse: The Nature and Extent of the Problem’, Sports Illustrated, June 23, 1969.52 Ibid.53 Ibid.54 Drug Abuse in Athletics: Assembly Interim Subcommittee on Drug Abuse and Alcoholism, ‘Testimony of H. Kay Dooley, October 20, 1970, 9.55 Ibid., 1056 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs by Athletes: Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, 93 Cong., 1st sess., June 18, July 12–13, 1973, 2.57 Ibid., 163, 351, 353, 394, 395, 436, 461, 666, 798, 816.58 Proper and Improper Use of Drugs, 2.59 Ibid., 290.60 Ibid., 293.61 Ann Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use Is Called Deceptive and Dangerous’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.62 Randy Harvey, ‘Canadian Inquiry Told of Bizarre Medical Practices’, The Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1989.63 ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.64 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.65 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.66 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 12 (January 18, 1983): 2208.67 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids; Drug Efficacy Study Implementation; Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 48, no. 94 (May 13, 1983): 21658.68 Llewellyn with Tober, Underground Anabolics, 14; others made similar contentions about this being a turning point of sorts. See for reference Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 11; for the FDA’s official ruling on the matter see United States General Services Administration, ‘Revocation of Exemption; Opportunity for Hearing’, Federal Register 50, no. 240 (December 13, 1985): 50964; and Daniel Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II: Incorporating Material from the Original Underground Steroid Handbook, Ultimate Muscle Mass, and the USH Updates #1-10 (Venice, CA: HLR Technical Books, 1989), 32.69 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.70 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook II, 36.71 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.72 The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, 29; and American Medical Association, Council on Scientific Affairs, ‘Drug Misuse: Anabolic Steroids and Human Growth Hormone’, Resolution 57, A-86 (1986), 30.73 Ibid.74 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.75 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.76 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.77 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12–13; and Gary R. Blockus, ‘Powerlifting Champ to Talk About the Dangers of Steroids’, The Morning Call, March 2, 1989.78 Alan L. Hoeting in interview with Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration (Minneapolis, MN: FDA History Office, 1999), 22–5. The reasoning here is three-fold: for starters, the document’s appendix dates the FDA’s first criminal warrant-search and seizure September 30, 1975; second, in the interview, Hoeting speaks of Degan with high praise for having ‘managed a complex and ‘precedent setting’ investigation’; and third, to the previous point, and also in the document’s appendix, Degan is listed as the recipient of the FDA Award of Merit in 1984 for ‘a brilliant performance in the preparation and management of a complex regulatory case’. Moreover, the document referenced above includes a section titled ‘Significant Historical.79 Assael, Steroid Nation, 12; and ‘The Godfather’, Sports Illustrated, March 11, 2008.80 Assael, Steroid Nation, 13; and Doug Fisher, ‘Former World Weight Lifting Champion Larry Pacifico…’, The Associated Press, June 18, 1987. Degan claimed in an interview for Steroid Nation that Pacifico ‘said just enough to make [him] realize that a silent network of dealers existed’ in the United States, many of them ‘using bodybuilding shows as a base of operations’.81 Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, appendix 13.82 Assael, Steroid Nation, 14; the author notes that Degan had tried and failed at ‘convincing law enforcement to take the [steroid] problem seriously’.83 Ibid., 13; FBI Director William H. Webster in memorandum to Special Agent in Charge, Los Angeles, ‘Re. Daniel Richard Duchaine’, September 9, 1985; and Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; and Alan L. Hoeting interview in Robert A. Tucker, The History of the US Food and Drug Administration, 24; there is conflicting evidence as to when Degan contacted the DOJ. In Steroid Nation, Assael claims he did so before raiding Pacifico’s offices, implying that the task force had already been green lit before authorities were aware of a nationwide network, the impetus for creating the task force in the first place. This is in direct contradiction to Halpern’s comments in a 2019 interview, and those of former FDA Director Alan L. Hoeting in 1999.84 Government of Canada, The Commission of Inquiry into the Use of Banned Drugs and Practices Intended to Increase Athletic Performance, commissioned by the Honorable Charles Dubin, November 16, 1988–September 19, 1989 (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Center, 1990), 366; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 13.85 Federal Bureau of Investigation, ‘Daniel Richard Duchaine’, in memorandum to Food and Drug Administration and United States Department of Justice, October 10, 1985; and William H. Webster in memorandum to SAC, Los Angeles, September 9, 1985; for references to Fitton’s arrest, see note 16.86 Max Cobb interviewed in Michael Powell, ‘Lest We Forget, the US, Too, Spent Time in the Doping Wilderness’, The New York Times, August 4, 2016, US Biathlon Chief Max Cobb uses the phrase ‘the wild west’ to describe the relative lack of steroid enforcement in the 1980s. See also James Montague, ‘Hero or Villain? Ben Johnson and the Dirtiest Race in History’, CNN Sports, July 23, 2012.87 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019.88 Peter Alfano and Michael Janofsky, ‘A Guru Who Spread the Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.89 Ibid., and Assael, Steroid Nation, 2.90 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Bruce Kneller in interview with author, August 3, 2019; Kneller served as Duchaine’s research assistant for four years from the late-1980s to the early-1990s. By his account they developed a close friendship over the years and collaborated on several projects for Duchaine’s supplement company.91 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5; Duchaine also makes similar comments in later interviews. For instance, in Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988, he asserts anabolic steroids can be safe if used in moderation and adds that the USHB was his attempt to dispel popular myths about the drugs, most of which originated in the medical community.92 Assael, Steroid Nation, 5–7.93 Ibid., 5; incidentally, Duchaine and Zumpano released a longer, edited version of USH sometime in 1983.94 Ibid., 7.95 Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Gospel of Steroids’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988; Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 12.96 Japenga, ‘Guidebook to Steroid Use’, The Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1984.97 Ibid; and Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 96.98 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; for Ziegler as the ‘father of Dianabol’, see for example John D. Fair, Mr. America: The Tragic History of a Bodybuilding Icon (Austin: The University of Texas Press, 2015), 152; and Robert Dvorchak, ‘Never Enough/Steroids in Sports: Experiment Turns Epidemic’, Post-Gazette (Pittsburgh), October 1, 2005.99 Duchaine, Underground Steroid Handbook, 6–7; the phrase ‘very popular with athletes’, appears in a passage describing the Anavar, an anabolic steroid reputed for mild side-effects and lean muscle gains.100 Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104; and FBI Special Agent in Affidavit for Search Warrant, United States District Court, Central District of California, case no. 86-1114m, August 1986, 4; the agent’s name was redacted for security purposes.101 Ibid.102 Ibid.103 Ibid.104 Ibid.; the author was unable to discern or find evidence of what the acronym CKR stood for.105 Ibid.106 It is not clear exactly when the grand jury was assembled, but the preceding correspondence indicates it was no later than November 12, 1985. Presumably this took place sometime between October 10, and the first two weeks of November. In Richard Bretzing, airtel correspondence to FBI Director William H. Webster, November 12, 1985, 3, Bretzing notes the FBI’s Los Angeles Division was awaiting grand jury subpoenas for mail surveillance on Duchaine and six other anabolic steroid dealers on November 12, indicating that the grand jury had already been investigating for an indeterminate timeframe. At the time the grand jury had already been given several bottles of the anabolic steroids Degan through the JZFC. Further evidence of this appears in Richard T. Bretzing in letter to United States Attorney Robert C. Bonner, January 28, 1986.107 In Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 16, the author finds that Dillon, who is the principal source of information in the piece, was under the impression he was meeting with Duchaine and Jenkins to discuss a legitimate supplement business. Further, according to several sources, Jenkins and Duchaine had discussed anabolic steroids several weeks before the lunch meeting in January 1986. For further reading see Richard Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver to Drugs and Jail David Jenkins Never Ran from Fate’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.108 Moore, ‘From Gold and Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012; for Jenkins’ nicknames, see Assael, Steroid Nation, 14.109 European Athletics, ‘European Athletics Championships, Helsinki 1971’, https://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athleticschampionships/history/year=1971/results/index.html (accessed June 8, 2019), and Davis, ‘Operation Overlord’, The Times, February 11, 1988.110 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.111 The side-effects associated with Dianabol are said to be more numerous and severe than most anabolic steroids. Users have reported severe water retention, muscle tightness, high blood pressure, and psychological malaise. See for reference Oliver Bateman and Danijel Zezelj, ‘Steroid Solidarity: The Culture of Juicing at the Mr. Olympia Competition’, Virginia Quarterly Review 93, no. 3 (2017), 67; and Lisa Anne Richardson, ‘I Need You to Look at Me: An Ethnographic Study of a Subculture of Serious Gym Members’ (PhD diss., San Jose State University, 1991), 26.112 Richard Moore, The Dirtiest Race in History: Ben Johnson, Carl Lewis, and the 1988 Olympic 100m Final (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012), 73.113 World Athletics, ‘Athlete Profiles – David Jenkins’, https://www.iaaf.org/athletes/great-britain-ni/david-jenkins-9770 (accessed August 4, 2019); the author contacted David Jenkins for the purpose of an interview for this chapter. Initially Jenkins seemed eager to take part, but several days later denied the request. At minimum this would have provided accurate details on the date Jenkins moved to California. Altogether, sources gathered for this chapter indicate that after retiring from track and field in the summer of 1982 he and his wife moved to Southern California. Given that Jenkins was already operating a ‘successful’ supplement business by mid-to-late 1985, it stands to reason that he emigrated soon after retiring. For comments on Jenkins’ supplement business see Ivor Davis, ‘Athletics: Jenkins on Drug Charges’, The Times (London), May 22, 1987.114 See for example Daniel Duchaine, ‘Newest Developments in Precontest Carbing Up’, Flex (December 1984): 46; and Daniel Duchaine, ‘Free-Form Amino Acids: The Protein Source of the 1980s’, Flex (January 1984): 49; the author accessed past issues of Flex magazine in the H.J. Lutcher Stark Center Sport History Archive at the University of Texas at Austin.115 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.116 Ibid.; in support of Jenkins’ claim, on February 2, 1986 Duchaine distributed a letter to John Ziegler Fan Club customers warning them that the FBI had raided ‘major suppliers on the east and west coast’. While he is not necessarily referring to the San Francisco source referenced by Jenkins, the timelines match. By Jenkins’ account, the supplier was shut down in mid-to-late 1985, about a month before Duchaine issued this warning. The letter is quoted in Todd, ‘Gremlins of Sport’, 104.117 At this point in time Duchaine had at least three different sources for anabolic steroids; in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Stuttgart. The author pieced together this information through FBI correspondence, Jenkins’ interview, and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12, 15–16.118 Moore, ‘From Gold to Silver’, The Scotsman, July 9, 2012.119 The author was unable to verify this with official competition results; however, this is mentioned in several sources. See for example Newton, Steroids and Doping in Sports, 92; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12.120 United States of America v. David Jenkins et al., 38; and Alfano and Janofsky, ‘Weight on Black Market’, The New York Times, November 18, 1988.121 United States General Services Administration, ‘Certain Anabolic Steroids’, 50964; and Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; for commentary on the popularity of Dianabol, see for reference Don. H. Catlin, Kenneth Fitch, and Arne Ljungqvist, ‘Medicine and Science in the Fight Against Doping in Sport’, Journal of Internal Medicine 264, no. 2 (2008): 104; and Wade, ‘Doctor’s Denounce Them’, 1400.122 Dillon provided these details in Eisendrath, ‘Confessions of a Steroid Smuggler’, 12; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 15, revealing in both interviews that it was Jenkins’ idea to center the business around Dianabol.123 Ibid.124 Fernando Romero, ‘Drug Lords Feel Mexico Muscle; Tijuana Steroids Lab Shut, 12 Held in Crackdown’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, April 11, 1989; and Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.125 Assael, Steroid Nation, 16.126 On the Hotel Fiesta Americana – the Grand Hotel Tijuana as of 1991 – see for reference Jorge Meraz, ‘Opinion: Growing Up in Tijuana, I Saw How We Shared More Than Just a Border with the US’, The San Diego Union-Tribune, July 10, 2022; and Rik Espinosa, Espinosa’s Guide to Baja: The Indispensable Companion of any Gringo Visiting Tijuana, Rosarito, Enesenada, and Tecate (Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1989), 86–7; on the Tijuana Country Club in years past, see Thurber Dennis Proffitt, Tijuana: The History of a Mexican Metropolis (San Diego, CA: San Diego State University Press, 1994), 196–7; and ‘Furgol, Souchak Head Field in Tijuana Open’, Rome News-Tribune, January 17, 1958.127 Phillip Halpern in interview with author, August 24, 2019; for details on Jenkins locating a source fo