Black and Blue: Black Police Officers’ Implicit and Explicit Biases in Split-Second Decisions to Shoot or Not to Shoot Unarmed Black Civilians

Abstract

This study applies Du Bois’ ‘double consciousness’ theory to explore the experiences of Black police officers. The research reveals that these officers’ interactions with unarmed Black civilians are influenced by their implicit identification with the Black community and their awareness of ongoing racial inequality in the U.S. However, internalized racism also leads to shooting errors, with officers viewing Black civilians through harmful racial stereotypes. The study, which involved 43 Black officers from various departments in the deep South, utilized a simulation game to assess decision-making under time pressure. INTRODUCTION Over the years, extensive data overwhelmingly confirm a disturbing trend: Blacks are killed by the police at sig- nificantly higher rates than any other racial group in the country (Demby, 2017). These killings are disproportion- ately carried out by White1 officers. A study conducted by ProPublica between 2012 and 2014 found that White offi- cers were responsible for 68 percent of all people of color killed (Gabrielson et al., 2014). While racism is often cited as a major factor in the shooting of unarmed Blacks (Mesic et al., 2018), little is known about such incidents involving officers of color. After all, 32 percent of all police killings of people of color are perpetrated by officers of color (Gabriel- son et al., 2014). From 2012-2014, Black officers accounted for only 10 percent of all police killings, but among that 10 percent, 78 percent of those killed were Black (Gabrielson et al., 2014). The topic of Black officers’ involvement in police killings of unarmed Black civilians changed dramatically on January 28, 2023, when the Memphis police department released a video showing the brutal beating of Tyre Nichols. After be- ing stopped for reckless driving, five Black police officers pulled him from the car and subjected him to a severe beating, resulting in his tragic death. This incident, unique compared to other high-profile killings of unarmed Blacks, has prompted questions about the potential impact of poli- cies aimed at increasing the number of Black police officers to reduce police violence against Black civilians. The prevailing narrative suggests that Black officers, due to their strong racial identities, can better relate to Blacks and are less likely to shoot unarmed members of their own race when compared to their White counterparts. However,