Who are satisfied with life in cities? Evidence for 25 European countries

Abstract

A large literature has studied the urban gradient in subjective well-being, but few studies have examined for whom urban areas are good places to live. Using Eurobarometer survey data 2010–2019, we find that, compared to other sociodemographic groups, young, single and well-educated persons report relatively higher life satisfaction in cities than in non-city areas, whereas the opposite is the case for the unemployed. Sex differences in preferences for city living depend on country income: women gain relative to the other sex from living in a city in EU countries with high GDP per capita and vice versa for men. The Nordic welfare states exhibit a distinct pattern as average life satisfaction is higher in cities than in non-city areas, and the effects of unemployment, education and age are smaller than in the rest of the EU.