Pedometer step guidelines for physical education settings

Abstract

The role of Physical Education (PE) in Australia is multifaceted, with physical activity (PA) participation recognised as the means by which a variety of learning outcomes are achieved. There is evidence to suggest that PA accrued during PE has the potential to be health enhancing. It may also be the only opportunity for some children, especially those from low socioeconomic backgrounds to accrue PA. This paper identifies criterion-referenced pedometer step guidelines as a valid, reliable, unobtrusive, and cost-effective means by which PA can be objectively quantified in PE settings. With the current state of the Health and Physical Education national curriculum area in focus, the application of pedometer step guidelines in PE settings are outlined. Introduction: Physical activity and the curriculum The Australian Curriculum for Health and Physical Education (ACHPE) suggests that Physical Education (PE) should be a foundation for lifelong physical activity (PA) participation. It also recommends appreciation of the significance of PA in society locally and globally (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2014). Brooker and Clennet (2005) suggested that although government and public expectations of PE to realise PA participation outcomes has served to narrow the scope of health and PE, few would argue that PA participation is not inherent to Australian PE. The Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (ACHPER) (2009) acknowledge this position in a statement that is intended to inform the development of the Australian Health and Physical Education (HPE) Curriculum: Contexts of physical activity and sport are therefore central to HPE (ACHPER, 2009, p. 3-4) [...] “Students should be provided with HPE learning experiences that will enable them to” (ACHPER, 2009, p. 5-6). Although PA participation is recognised as the means by which PE learning outcomes can be realised and that PA appreciation and participation beyond the PE setting “now and in the future” is a goal rather than PE’s primary statement of learning content, PA is intrinsic to Australian PE contextually and pedagogically. 181 Learning Communities | Special Issue: 2017 30th AChPER International Conference | Number 21 – November 2017 Physical activity in physical education Several studies have shown that PA accrued in PE settings is associated with improved health outcomes in children and adolescents weight status (Datar & Sturm, 2004; Sollerhed & Ejlertsson, 2008; Wardle, Brodersen & Boniface, 2007) bone health (Weeks, Young & Beck, 2008) and blood pressure (Mc Murray et al., 2002). Some evidence also indicates that engagement in PE during childhood is associated with long-term positive effects on PA level, attitudes toward PA, and perceptions of barriers to PA during adulthood. Additionally, review papers have identified associations between curricular-PA or PE and academic performance. The contribution PE-based PA makes in relation to total daily PA levels or meeting Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) recommendations is potentially considerable. Upper primary and lower secondary school students have been found to acquire approximately 1133% of daily MVPA during PE lessons (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005; Wickel & Eisenmann, 2007). In relation to total daily PA levels, children aged 11-13 years have been found to accumulate 15.6%– 23.7% (boys) and 14.9%-17.2% (girls) of total daily pedometer step counts during PE lessons 45-50 minutes in duration (Flohr, Todd & Tudor-Locke, 2006; Reed, Metzker & Phillips, 2004). Smaller step contributions (boys = 8.7%, girls = 11.4%) have been found for 30-minute PE classes among children of a similar age (boys = 8.7%, girls = 11.4%) (Tudor-Locke, Lee, Morgan, Beighle & Pangrazi, 2006). There is some indication that children who are among the least active of their peers on most school days are likely to gain greater proportional increases (+18%) in PA from school days with PE compared to children who are consistently more active (+9-13%) (Morgan, Beighle & Pangrazi, 2007). For the school day, PE has been identified as being the largest contributor of PA (as measured via pedometers) for girls (14.3%) and the second largest for boys (12.7%) behind lunchtime (Brusseau et al., 2011). Despite the potential health, academic and lifelong engagement benefits of PA in PE settings, a specific PA duration & intensity guideline has not been recommended in Australian PE curricula, or developed by a professional organisation. Outside Australia, PA time guidelines that relate to PE settings exist. For example, United States (US) guidelines recommend that adolescents (grades 7-12) spend 50% of PE class time engaged in PA (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008). A separate guideline developed by the American Heart Association recommends that all school children and youth should engage in at least 30 minutes of MVPA during school hours (including PE class time) per day (Pate et al., 2006). Presently, no other PA time guidelines specific to PE settings have been developed. Measuring physical activity in physical education settings (pedometry) A variety of PA measurement methods and instruments are used by researchers and practitioners to measure PA type, duration, intensity and frequency (Welk, 2002). Each method can be classified into a validity/reliability hierarchy containing three categories. These are criterion, objective and subjective PA measures (Sirard & Pate, 2001). Criterion measures are considered the most accurate assessment method and are often used to validate the ability of objective and subjective instruments in measuring PA (Welk, 2002). Each measure possesses strengths and limitations underpinned by its feasibility, reliability and validity in PA contexts. Pedometry and the direct observation instrument, the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) have been used widely to measure PE-based PA for research purposes, though both measures pose limitations. For example although pedometry is cost-effective (Welk, 2002) it is unable to assess intensity, frequency, and duration of PA (Corder, Ekelund, Steele, Wareham & Brage, 2008). Conversely, while SOFIT has been proven to be valid and reliable (McClain, Abraham, Brusseau & Tudor-Locke, 2008) in measuring PE-based PA, the direct observation method itself is time intensive with regard to collecting data and training 182 Pedometer Step Guidelines for Physical Education Settings | Terry Magias, Kate Ridley & Shane Pill observers (Welk, 2002). Criterion referenced pedometer steps/min scores that are associated with various levels of PA provide an objective and validated option for measuring PA in PE. Therefore, they may helpful as a practical, valid and reliable means by which PA levels can be measured in PE settings for research purposes. They may also be used as a reference point by which the effectiveness of PE programs can be assessed in terms of their ability to engage students in PA. Three mechanism types are available for electronic pedometers including spring-levered, those that contain a magnetic reed proximity switch and piezo-electric models. The piezoelectric mechanism has been identified as possessing superior step-counting accuracy among children, undercounting steps -0.2% 4.2% compared to spring-levered designs which have shown accuracy discrepancies upwards of 25% (Nakae, Oshima, & Ishii, 2008). Accuracy differences are particularly pronounced at slower walking speeds, likely due to the vertical acceleration forces produced during slower speeds falling short of the 0.35g of force needed in order for steps to be registered in spring-levered models (Duncan, Schofield, Duncan, & Hinckson, 2007). Pedometer steps per minute guidelines in physical education settings While raw pedometer step counts do not provide information on PA intensity, frequency, or duration (Corder et al., 2008) six studies have developed pedometer steps/min intervals criterion-referenced by the direct observation instrument SOFIT, that equate to spending one third to a half of PE class time engaged in MVPA. The one third guideline was adapted from the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention and the Council for Physical Education and Children (cited in Scruggs, 2007a) who stipulated that students in the United States in grades K-6 should spend a significant proportion of PE lesson time engaged in PA. The United States Department for Health and Human Services recommendation that students in grades 7-12 spend 50% of PE class time engaged in PA (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2009). For the one third MVPA criteria, similar pedometer steps/min intervals were found across four studies ranging from 60.8-65.0, mainly among primary children aged between 6.9 and 13.8 years old (Scruggs et al., 2003, Scruggs, Beveridge, Watson, & Clocksin, 2005, Scruggs 2007b, Scruggs 2013b). For spending half of PE class time engaged in MVPA as recommended by The United States Department for Health and Human Services (2009), two studies found greater steps/min ranging from 79.1-88.0 for youth aged 12.5-15.5 years (Scruggs 2007a & Scruggs, Mungen & Oh, 2010). A follow up study sought to identify optimal steps/min intervals for both 33.33% and 50% MVPA criteria from combined data sets from previous research (Scruggs, 2013b). The findings of the study indicated that it was possible for common steps/min intervals to be set for students in 1st through to 12th grade Physical Education (United States). Steps/min intervals of 59.5-61.8 and 82.5-88.1 were identified for the 33.33% and 50% MVPA criteria respectively (Scruggs, 2007a; 2007b; 2013a; 2013b; & Scruggs et al., 2010). The present study aimed to expand upon previous research by assessing external validity of previously developed pedometer steps/min intervals and identify those most accurate for invasion sport games in lower PE grade settings. Invasion sports were considered to b