人工智能是恐怖主义的推动者?了解聊天机器人和图像生成器对在线恐怖活动的潜在影响

IF 1.2 3区 社会学 Q2 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Pub Date : 2023-09-21 DOI:10.1080/1057610x.2023.2259195
Miron Lakomy
{"title":"人工智能是恐怖主义的推动者?了解聊天机器人和图像生成器对在线恐怖活动的潜在影响","authors":"Miron Lakomy","doi":"10.1080/1057610x.2023.2259195","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"AbstractThis paper is based on an experiment-based study carried out in the first half of 2023, which aimed to understand how terrorist organizations can potentially exploit artificial intelligence. It discusses the risks of using AI to produce and disseminate propaganda, as well as verifies whether it can be used to facilitate access to terrorist content. It also explores if AI-based platforms can be used to access terrorism-related know-how. This paper also focuses on understanding the specificity of content moderation procedures introduced by these services to mitigate their use by violent extremists and provides recommendations for increasing their efficiency. Disclosure statementThe author report there are no competing interests to declare.Notes1 Corneliu Bjola, “AI for Development: Implications for Theory and Practice,” Oxford Development Studies 50, no. 1 (2021).2 Spyros Makridakis, “The Forthcoming Artificial Intelligence (AI) Revolution: Its Impact on Society and Firms,” Futures 90 (2017): 46–60.3 “About,” Midjourney, https://www.midjourney.com/home/?callbackUrl=/app/ (accessed April 20, 2023).4 Pascal Kaufmann, Thilo Stadel-mann, Benjamin Grewe, “ChatGPT Heralds Tech Revolution,” Meinung, last modified February 15, 2023, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5e71f505e224b656715c1753/63f327e649b46c9017ccf2b3_20230215_FuW_EN_ChatGPT%20heralds%20tech%20revolution.pdf.5 Krystal Hu, “ChatGPT Sets Record for Fastest-Growing User Base – Analyst Note,” Reuters, last modified February 02, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/.6 “Artificial Intelligence: Potential Benefits and Ethical Considerations,” European Parliament Briefing, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/571380/IPOL_BRI (2016)571380_EN.pdf (accessed April 25, 2023).7 Jianyang Deng and Yijia Lin, “The Benefits and Challenges of ChatGPT: An Overview,” Frontiers in Computing and Intelligent Systems 2, no. 2 (2022).8 Glorin Sebastian, „Do ChatGPT and Other AI Chatbots Pose a Cybersecurity Risk? An Exploratory Study,” International Journal of Security and Privacy in Pervasive Computing 15, no. 1 (2023).9 Joe McKendrick, „Who Ultimately Owns Content Generated By ChatGPT And Other AI Platforms?,” Forbes, last modified December 21, 2022, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joemckendrick/2022/12/21/who-ultimately-owns-content-generated-by-chatgpt-and-other-ai-platforms/?sh=7cd11c7c5423.10 Matt Burgess, “ChatGPT Has a Big Privacy Problem,” Wired, last modified April 4, 2023, https://www.wired.com/story/italy-ban-chatgpt-privacy-gdpr/.11 Tiffany Hsu and Stuart A. Thompson, “Disinformation Researchers Raise Alarms About A.I. Chatbots,” The New York Times, last modified February 8, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html.12 Rudy Guyonneau and Arnaud Le Dez, “Artificial Intelligence in Digital Warfare: Introducing the Concept of the Cyberteammate,” The Cyber Defense Review 4, no. 2 (2019); Charlie Greenbacker and Nic Acton, “How AI Can be Used to Rapidly Respond to Information Warfare in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict,” Snorkel, last modified February 28, 2022, https://snorkel.ai/ai-response-to-information-warfare/.13 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence (AI),” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, last modified November 17, 2022, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai.14 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 5, 2023).15 Philip Boucher, Artificial Intelligence: How Does It Work, Why Does It Matter, and What Can We Do About It? (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2020), III.16 Stuart C. Shapiro, “Artificial Intelligence,” in Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, ed. Stuart C. Shapiro (New York: Wiley, 1992), 54–7.17 “Artificial Intelligence (AI) vs. machine learning (ML),” Microsoft Azure, https://azure.microsoft.com/pl-pl/resources/cloud-computing-dictionary/artificial-intelligence-vs-machine-learning/#introduction (accessed May 6, 2023).18 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 6, 2023).19 See Jiaying Liu et al., “Artificial Intelligence in the 21st century,” IEEE Access 99, no. 1 (2018).20 Rockwell Anyoha, “The History of Artificial Intelligence,” Harvard University, last modified August 28, 2017, https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/.21 “Big Data and Artificial Intelligence: How They Work Together,” Maryville University, https://online.maryville.edu/blog/big-data-is-too-big-without-ai/ (accessed May 10, 2023).22 DALL-E was launched in 2021. DALL-E 2 was released year later. See “DALL-E 2,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/product/dall-e-2 (accessed May 10, 2023).23 “Introducing ChatGPT,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt (accessed May 10, 2023).24 Daniel van Boom, “ChatGPT Can Pass the Bar Exam. Does That Actually Matter?,” CNET, last modified March 19, 2023, https://www.cnet.com/tech/chatgpt-can-pass-the-bar-exam-does-that-actually-matter/.25 Surprising statements from tech giants only fueled controversies in this regard. For instance, in April 2023, the Google CEO admitted that they do not fully understand how the company’s AI – Bard – works. See Alan Martin, “Google CEO Sundar Pichai admits people ‘don’t fully understand’ how chatbot AI works,” Evening Standard, last modified April 17, 2023, https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/google-ceo-sundar-pichai-understand-ai-chatbot-bard-b1074589.html.26 Anoushka Sharma, “Man Asks ChatGPT How to Smuggle Drugs Into Europe, Bot Lists Suggestions,” NDTV, last modified February 6, 2023, https://www.ndtv.com/feature/man-asks-chatgpt-how-to-smuggle-drugs-into-europe-bot-lists-suggestions-3756323.27 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023).28 Vera Lúcia Raposo, “The Use of Facial Recognition Technology by Law Enforcement in Europe: a Non-Orwellian Draft Proposal,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research (2022).29 Enn Tyugu, “Artificial Intelligence in Cyber Defense,” in 2011 3rd International Conference on Cyber Conflict, eds. C. Czosseck, E. Tyugu, T. Wingfield (Tallinn: CCD COE, 2011).30 “Generative Language Models and Automated Influence Operations: Emerging Threats and Potential Mitigations,” OpenAI, https://cdn.openai.com/papers/forecasting-misuse.pdf (accessed May 15, 2023).31 Daniel L. Byman, Chongyang Gao, Chris Meserole, V.S. Subrahmanian, Deepfakes and International Conflict (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2023); Rachel Baig, “The Deepfakes in the Disinformation War,” DW.com, last modified March 18, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-the-deepfakes-in-the-disinformation-war-between-russia-and-ukraine/a-61166433.32 Countering Terrorism Online with Artificial Intelligence (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, 2021).33 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence,” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai (accessed June 1, 2023).34 Hugo Verhelst, Alexander Stannat, Giulio Mecacci, “Machine Learning Against Terrorism: How Big Data Collection and Analysis Influences the Privacy-Security Dilemma,” Science and Engineering Ethics 26 (2020).35 Janus Rose, “OpenAI’s New Chatbot Will Tell You How to Shoplift And Make Explosives,” Vice, last modified December 1, 2022, https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgyp9j/openais-new-chatbot-will-tell-you-how-to-shoplift-and-make-explosives; “Bavabinks,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/bavabinks/status/1653112984212758555 (accessed June 29, 2023).36 Lee Man-jong, “A Study on the Possibility of Terrorism by AI and Its Countermeasures,” International Journal of Military Affairs 3, no. 1 (2018).37 Algorithms and Terrorism: The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence for Terrorist Purposes (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, 2021).38 Ibid., 8.39 Daniel Siegel and Mary Bennett Doty, “Weapons of Mass Disruption: Artificial Intelligence and the Production of Extremist Propaganda,” Global Network on Extremism & Technology, last modified February 17, 2023, https://gnet-research.org/2023/02/17/weapons-of-mass-disruption-artificial-intelligence-and-the-production-of-extremist-propaganda/.40 Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).41 Maria Diaz, „How to use Bing Chat (and how it’s different from ChatGPT), ZDNET, last modified April 24, 2023, https://www.zdnet.com/article/how-to-use-the-new-bing-and-how-its-different-from-chatgpt/.42 See https://openai.com.43 See https://www.craiyon.com/.44 See https://dream.ai/create.45 See https://www.bing.com/create. It should be, however, noted that Bing Image Creator is based on DALL-E 2.46 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023), 5.47 See, for instance: https://www.jailbreakchat.com.48 See Carol K. Winkler and Cori E. Dauber, eds., Visual propaganda and extremism in the online environment (Carlisle: U.S. Army War College Press, 2014).49 See Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).50 Vinton G. Cerf, Patrick S. Ryan, Max Senges, Richard S. Whitt, “IoT safety and security as shared responsibility,” Journal of Business Informatics 35, no. 1 (2016): 10–11.51 See, for instance: “Google and Alphabet Vulnerability Reward Program (VRP) Rules,” Google, https://bughunters.google.com/about/rules/6625378258649088/google-and-alphabet-vulnerability-reward-program-vrp-rules (accessed July 5, 2023).52 It should be emphasized that OpenAI is not against using jailbreaks. See: Maxwell Timothy, “What Are ChatGPT Jailbreaks? Should You Use Them?,” Make Use Of, last modified May 3, 2023, https://www.makeuseof.com/what-are-chatgpt-jailbreaks/.53 See “Explanatory note on potential misuse of research,” European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/portal4/doc/call/h2020/fct-16-2015/1645168-explanatory_note_on_potential_misuse_of_research_en.pdf (accessed July 6, 2023).54 For instance, one Reddit user tricked ChatGPT into giving him detailed instructions on “cooking meth.” The instruction was available on the platform for months. See: https://www.reddit.com (accessed July 6, 2023).55 Stuart Macdonald, Sara Giro Correia, Amy-Louise Watkin, “Regulating Terrorist Content on Social Media: Automation and the Rule of Law,” International Journal of Law in Context 15, no. 2 (2019).56 See Miron Lakomy, “Why Do Online Countering Violent Extremism Strategies Not Work? The Case of Digital Jihad,” Terrorism and Political Violence (2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2038575.57 Pranshu Verma and Will Oremus, “ChatGPT Invented a Sexual Harassment Scandal and Named a Real Law Prof as the Accused,” The Washington Post, last modified April 5, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/04/05/chatgpt-lies/.58 See, for instance: Thomas Frissen et al., “Capitalizing on the Koran to Fuel Online Violent Radicalization: A Taxonomy of Koranic References in ISIS’s Dabiq,” Telematics and Informatics, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/495477 (accessed July 15, 2023).59 See John Hendry and Anthony F. Lemieux, “The Visual and Rhetorical Styles of Atomwaffen Division and their Implications,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 14, no. 2 (2021).60 On the distinction between near and far enemies in the Islamic State’s ideology, see, for instance: Exploiting Disorder: al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2016), 28.61 Mostly text propaganda was considered, although some prompts also focused on other types of productions released by VEOs.62 See Remy Mahzam, “Rumiyah – Jihadist Propaganda & Information Warfare in Cyberspace,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 9, no. 3 (2017).63 On the contents of these magazines, see: Digital Jihad: Online Communication and Violent Extremism, ed. Francesco Marone (Milano: Ledizioni LediPublishing, 2019).64 See Maura Conway, Jodie Parker and Sean Looney, “Online Jihadi Instructional Content: The Role of Magazines,” NATO Series for Peace and Security Series136 (2017).65 On these narratives, see more in: Miron Lakomy, “Recruitment and Incitement to Violence in the Islamic State’s Online Propaganda: Comparative Analysis of Dabiq and Rumiyah,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 44, no. 7 (2021).66 For instance, the pro-Islamic State Afaaq Electronic Foundation of the German-language e-magazine Kybernetiq have been known of focusing on improving OPSEC and cyber security of violent extremists. See Miron Lakomy, “The Virtual ‘Caliphate’ strikes back? Mapping the Islamic State’s Information Ecosystem on the Surface Web,” Security Journal (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-00364-z.67 Online Jihadist Propaganda. 2021 in Review (The Hague: Europol, 2022), 23.68 It should be stressed that the accuracy of these recipies could not be confirmed, due to their highly professional and sensitive nature. In this context, there is a chance that they could contain some mistakes, which are quite common in GPT-3.5, effectively mitigating their practical use for terrorists.69 Daniel Milton, Down but Not Out: An Updated Examination of the Islamic State’s Visual Propaganda (West Point: U.S. Military Academy, 2018); Miron Lakomy, “Cracks in the Online ‘caliphate’: How the Islamic State is Losing Ground in the Battle for Cyberspace,” Perspectives on Terrorism 11, no. 3 (2017).70 See Teresa Quintel, “Data Protection Rules Applicable to Financial Intelligence Units: Still no Clarity in Sight,” ERA Forum 23 (2022).71 “Discord Interface,” Midjourney, https://docs.midjourney.com/docs/midjourney-discord (accessed July 25, 2023).72 On aesthetics of terrorist propaganda, see: Cori E. Dauber et al., “Call of Duty: Jihad – How the Video Game Motif Has Migrated Downstream from Islamic State Propaganda Videos,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13, no. 3 (2019).73 See Olivier Roy, Jihad and Death: The Global Appeal of Islamic State (London: Hurst Publishers, 2017).74 Prompts, which provided the most concerning outcomes from the tested AI platforms, were reported to national and international stakeholders. Subsequentlly, they were analyzed again in June and July 2023. Results of this verification shows that ChatGPT largely upgraded its content moderation procedures by that time. This is proven by the fact that the same prompts that led to generating sensitive knowledge on explosives started to trigger security warnings, which was not the case in March. However, no major differences when it comes to cyber security instructions or methods of avoiding detection from law enforcement agencies were detected.75 See www.jailbreakchat.com.","PeriodicalId":38834,"journal":{"name":"Studies in Conflict & Terrorism","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2000,"publicationDate":"2023-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Artificial Intelligence as a Terrorism Enabler? Understanding the Potential Impact of Chatbots and Image Generators on Online Terrorist Activities\",\"authors\":\"Miron Lakomy\",\"doi\":\"10.1080/1057610x.2023.2259195\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"AbstractThis paper is based on an experiment-based study carried out in the first half of 2023, which aimed to understand how terrorist organizations can potentially exploit artificial intelligence. It discusses the risks of using AI to produce and disseminate propaganda, as well as verifies whether it can be used to facilitate access to terrorist content. It also explores if AI-based platforms can be used to access terrorism-related know-how. This paper also focuses on understanding the specificity of content moderation procedures introduced by these services to mitigate their use by violent extremists and provides recommendations for increasing their efficiency. Disclosure statementThe author report there are no competing interests to declare.Notes1 Corneliu Bjola, “AI for Development: Implications for Theory and Practice,” Oxford Development Studies 50, no. 1 (2021).2 Spyros Makridakis, “The Forthcoming Artificial Intelligence (AI) Revolution: Its Impact on Society and Firms,” Futures 90 (2017): 46–60.3 “About,” Midjourney, https://www.midjourney.com/home/?callbackUrl=/app/ (accessed April 20, 2023).4 Pascal Kaufmann, Thilo Stadel-mann, Benjamin Grewe, “ChatGPT Heralds Tech Revolution,” Meinung, last modified February 15, 2023, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5e71f505e224b656715c1753/63f327e649b46c9017ccf2b3_20230215_FuW_EN_ChatGPT%20heralds%20tech%20revolution.pdf.5 Krystal Hu, “ChatGPT Sets Record for Fastest-Growing User Base – Analyst Note,” Reuters, last modified February 02, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/.6 “Artificial Intelligence: Potential Benefits and Ethical Considerations,” European Parliament Briefing, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/571380/IPOL_BRI (2016)571380_EN.pdf (accessed April 25, 2023).7 Jianyang Deng and Yijia Lin, “The Benefits and Challenges of ChatGPT: An Overview,” Frontiers in Computing and Intelligent Systems 2, no. 2 (2022).8 Glorin Sebastian, „Do ChatGPT and Other AI Chatbots Pose a Cybersecurity Risk? An Exploratory Study,” International Journal of Security and Privacy in Pervasive Computing 15, no. 1 (2023).9 Joe McKendrick, „Who Ultimately Owns Content Generated By ChatGPT And Other AI Platforms?,” Forbes, last modified December 21, 2022, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joemckendrick/2022/12/21/who-ultimately-owns-content-generated-by-chatgpt-and-other-ai-platforms/?sh=7cd11c7c5423.10 Matt Burgess, “ChatGPT Has a Big Privacy Problem,” Wired, last modified April 4, 2023, https://www.wired.com/story/italy-ban-chatgpt-privacy-gdpr/.11 Tiffany Hsu and Stuart A. Thompson, “Disinformation Researchers Raise Alarms About A.I. Chatbots,” The New York Times, last modified February 8, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html.12 Rudy Guyonneau and Arnaud Le Dez, “Artificial Intelligence in Digital Warfare: Introducing the Concept of the Cyberteammate,” The Cyber Defense Review 4, no. 2 (2019); Charlie Greenbacker and Nic Acton, “How AI Can be Used to Rapidly Respond to Information Warfare in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict,” Snorkel, last modified February 28, 2022, https://snorkel.ai/ai-response-to-information-warfare/.13 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence (AI),” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, last modified November 17, 2022, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai.14 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 5, 2023).15 Philip Boucher, Artificial Intelligence: How Does It Work, Why Does It Matter, and What Can We Do About It? (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2020), III.16 Stuart C. Shapiro, “Artificial Intelligence,” in Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, ed. Stuart C. Shapiro (New York: Wiley, 1992), 54–7.17 “Artificial Intelligence (AI) vs. machine learning (ML),” Microsoft Azure, https://azure.microsoft.com/pl-pl/resources/cloud-computing-dictionary/artificial-intelligence-vs-machine-learning/#introduction (accessed May 6, 2023).18 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 6, 2023).19 See Jiaying Liu et al., “Artificial Intelligence in the 21st century,” IEEE Access 99, no. 1 (2018).20 Rockwell Anyoha, “The History of Artificial Intelligence,” Harvard University, last modified August 28, 2017, https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/.21 “Big Data and Artificial Intelligence: How They Work Together,” Maryville University, https://online.maryville.edu/blog/big-data-is-too-big-without-ai/ (accessed May 10, 2023).22 DALL-E was launched in 2021. DALL-E 2 was released year later. See “DALL-E 2,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/product/dall-e-2 (accessed May 10, 2023).23 “Introducing ChatGPT,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt (accessed May 10, 2023).24 Daniel van Boom, “ChatGPT Can Pass the Bar Exam. Does That Actually Matter?,” CNET, last modified March 19, 2023, https://www.cnet.com/tech/chatgpt-can-pass-the-bar-exam-does-that-actually-matter/.25 Surprising statements from tech giants only fueled controversies in this regard. For instance, in April 2023, the Google CEO admitted that they do not fully understand how the company’s AI – Bard – works. See Alan Martin, “Google CEO Sundar Pichai admits people ‘don’t fully understand’ how chatbot AI works,” Evening Standard, last modified April 17, 2023, https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/google-ceo-sundar-pichai-understand-ai-chatbot-bard-b1074589.html.26 Anoushka Sharma, “Man Asks ChatGPT How to Smuggle Drugs Into Europe, Bot Lists Suggestions,” NDTV, last modified February 6, 2023, https://www.ndtv.com/feature/man-asks-chatgpt-how-to-smuggle-drugs-into-europe-bot-lists-suggestions-3756323.27 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023).28 Vera Lúcia Raposo, “The Use of Facial Recognition Technology by Law Enforcement in Europe: a Non-Orwellian Draft Proposal,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research (2022).29 Enn Tyugu, “Artificial Intelligence in Cyber Defense,” in 2011 3rd International Conference on Cyber Conflict, eds. C. Czosseck, E. Tyugu, T. Wingfield (Tallinn: CCD COE, 2011).30 “Generative Language Models and Automated Influence Operations: Emerging Threats and Potential Mitigations,” OpenAI, https://cdn.openai.com/papers/forecasting-misuse.pdf (accessed May 15, 2023).31 Daniel L. Byman, Chongyang Gao, Chris Meserole, V.S. Subrahmanian, Deepfakes and International Conflict (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2023); Rachel Baig, “The Deepfakes in the Disinformation War,” DW.com, last modified March 18, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-the-deepfakes-in-the-disinformation-war-between-russia-and-ukraine/a-61166433.32 Countering Terrorism Online with Artificial Intelligence (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, 2021).33 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence,” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai (accessed June 1, 2023).34 Hugo Verhelst, Alexander Stannat, Giulio Mecacci, “Machine Learning Against Terrorism: How Big Data Collection and Analysis Influences the Privacy-Security Dilemma,” Science and Engineering Ethics 26 (2020).35 Janus Rose, “OpenAI’s New Chatbot Will Tell You How to Shoplift And Make Explosives,” Vice, last modified December 1, 2022, https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgyp9j/openais-new-chatbot-will-tell-you-how-to-shoplift-and-make-explosives; “Bavabinks,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/bavabinks/status/1653112984212758555 (accessed June 29, 2023).36 Lee Man-jong, “A Study on the Possibility of Terrorism by AI and Its Countermeasures,” International Journal of Military Affairs 3, no. 1 (2018).37 Algorithms and Terrorism: The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence for Terrorist Purposes (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, 2021).38 Ibid., 8.39 Daniel Siegel and Mary Bennett Doty, “Weapons of Mass Disruption: Artificial Intelligence and the Production of Extremist Propaganda,” Global Network on Extremism & Technology, last modified February 17, 2023, https://gnet-research.org/2023/02/17/weapons-of-mass-disruption-artificial-intelligence-and-the-production-of-extremist-propaganda/.40 Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).41 Maria Diaz, „How to use Bing Chat (and how it’s different from ChatGPT), ZDNET, last modified April 24, 2023, https://www.zdnet.com/article/how-to-use-the-new-bing-and-how-its-different-from-chatgpt/.42 See https://openai.com.43 See https://www.craiyon.com/.44 See https://dream.ai/create.45 See https://www.bing.com/create. It should be, however, noted that Bing Image Creator is based on DALL-E 2.46 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023), 5.47 See, for instance: https://www.jailbreakchat.com.48 See Carol K. Winkler and Cori E. Dauber, eds., Visual propaganda and extremism in the online environment (Carlisle: U.S. Army War College Press, 2014).49 See Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).50 Vinton G. Cerf, Patrick S. Ryan, Max Senges, Richard S. Whitt, “IoT safety and security as shared responsibility,” Journal of Business Informatics 35, no. 1 (2016): 10–11.51 See, for instance: “Google and Alphabet Vulnerability Reward Program (VRP) Rules,” Google, https://bughunters.google.com/about/rules/6625378258649088/google-and-alphabet-vulnerability-reward-program-vrp-rules (accessed July 5, 2023).52 It should be emphasized that OpenAI is not against using jailbreaks. See: Maxwell Timothy, “What Are ChatGPT Jailbreaks? Should You Use Them?,” Make Use Of, last modified May 3, 2023, https://www.makeuseof.com/what-are-chatgpt-jailbreaks/.53 See “Explanatory note on potential misuse of research,” European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/portal4/doc/call/h2020/fct-16-2015/1645168-explanatory_note_on_potential_misuse_of_research_en.pdf (accessed July 6, 2023).54 For instance, one Reddit user tricked ChatGPT into giving him detailed instructions on “cooking meth.” The instruction was available on the platform for months. See: https://www.reddit.com (accessed July 6, 2023).55 Stuart Macdonald, Sara Giro Correia, Amy-Louise Watkin, “Regulating Terrorist Content on Social Media: Automation and the Rule of Law,” International Journal of Law in Context 15, no. 2 (2019).56 See Miron Lakomy, “Why Do Online Countering Violent Extremism Strategies Not Work? The Case of Digital Jihad,” Terrorism and Political Violence (2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2038575.57 Pranshu Verma and Will Oremus, “ChatGPT Invented a Sexual Harassment Scandal and Named a Real Law Prof as the Accused,” The Washington Post, last modified April 5, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/04/05/chatgpt-lies/.58 See, for instance: Thomas Frissen et al., “Capitalizing on the Koran to Fuel Online Violent Radicalization: A Taxonomy of Koranic References in ISIS’s Dabiq,” Telematics and Informatics, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/495477 (accessed July 15, 2023).59 See John Hendry and Anthony F. Lemieux, “The Visual and Rhetorical Styles of Atomwaffen Division and their Implications,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 14, no. 2 (2021).60 On the distinction between near and far enemies in the Islamic State’s ideology, see, for instance: Exploiting Disorder: al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2016), 28.61 Mostly text propaganda was considered, although some prompts also focused on other types of productions released by VEOs.62 See Remy Mahzam, “Rumiyah – Jihadist Propaganda & Information Warfare in Cyberspace,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 9, no. 3 (2017).63 On the contents of these magazines, see: Digital Jihad: Online Communication and Violent Extremism, ed. Francesco Marone (Milano: Ledizioni LediPublishing, 2019).64 See Maura Conway, Jodie Parker and Sean Looney, “Online Jihadi Instructional Content: The Role of Magazines,” NATO Series for Peace and Security Series136 (2017).65 On these narratives, see more in: Miron Lakomy, “Recruitment and Incitement to Violence in the Islamic State’s Online Propaganda: Comparative Analysis of Dabiq and Rumiyah,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 44, no. 7 (2021).66 For instance, the pro-Islamic State Afaaq Electronic Foundation of the German-language e-magazine Kybernetiq have been known of focusing on improving OPSEC and cyber security of violent extremists. See Miron Lakomy, “The Virtual ‘Caliphate’ strikes back? Mapping the Islamic State’s Information Ecosystem on the Surface Web,” Security Journal (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-00364-z.67 Online Jihadist Propaganda. 2021 in Review (The Hague: Europol, 2022), 23.68 It should be stressed that the accuracy of these recipies could not be confirmed, due to their highly professional and sensitive nature. In this context, there is a chance that they could contain some mistakes, which are quite common in GPT-3.5, effectively mitigating their practical use for terrorists.69 Daniel Milton, Down but Not Out: An Updated Examination of the Islamic State’s Visual Propaganda (West Point: U.S. Military Academy, 2018); Miron Lakomy, “Cracks in the Online ‘caliphate’: How the Islamic State is Losing Ground in the Battle for Cyberspace,” Perspectives on Terrorism 11, no. 3 (2017).70 See Teresa Quintel, “Data Protection Rules Applicable to Financial Intelligence Units: Still no Clarity in Sight,” ERA Forum 23 (2022).71 “Discord Interface,” Midjourney, https://docs.midjourney.com/docs/midjourney-discord (accessed July 25, 2023).72 On aesthetics of terrorist propaganda, see: Cori E. Dauber et al., “Call of Duty: Jihad – How the Video Game Motif Has Migrated Downstream from Islamic State Propaganda Videos,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13, no. 3 (2019).73 See Olivier Roy, Jihad and Death: The Global Appeal of Islamic State (London: Hurst Publishers, 2017).74 Prompts, which provided the most concerning outcomes from the tested AI platforms, were reported to national and international stakeholders. Subsequentlly, they were analyzed again in June and July 2023. Results of this verification shows that ChatGPT largely upgraded its content moderation procedures by that time. This is proven by the fact that the same prompts that led to generating sensitive knowledge on explosives started to trigger security warnings, which was not the case in March. 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引用次数: 0

摘要

摘要本文基于2023年上半年开展的一项实验研究,旨在了解恐怖组织如何潜在地利用人工智能。它讨论了使用人工智能制作和传播宣传的风险,并验证了它是否可以用来促进获取恐怖主义内容。它还探讨了基于人工智能的平台是否可以用来获取与恐怖主义相关的知识。本文还侧重于了解这些服务引入的内容审核程序的特殊性,以减少暴力极端分子对其的使用,并提供提高其效率的建议。披露声明作者报告无利益冲突需要申报。注1:Corneliu Bjola,《人工智能促进发展:理论与实践的启示》,《牛津发展研究》第50期。1(2021)。2Spyros Makridakis,“即将到来的人工智能(AI)革命:对社会和企业的影响”,Futures 90(2017): 46-60.3。“About”,Midjourney, https://www.midjourney.com/home/?callbackUrl=/app/(2023年4月20日访问)Pascal Kaufmann, Thilo stadelmann, Benjamin Grewe,“ChatGPT预示着技术革命”,Meinung,最后修改于2023年2月15日,https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5e71f505e224b656715c1753/63f327e649b46c9017ccf2b3_20230215_FuW_EN_ChatGPT%20heralds%20tech%20revolution.pdf.5 crystal Hu,“ChatGPT创下增长最快的用户群记录-分析师报告,”6 .路透社,最后一次修改于2023年2月2日,https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/.6“人工智能:潜在利益和伦理考虑”,欧洲议会简报,https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/571380/IPOL_BRI (2016)571380_EN.pdf(访问于2023年4月25日)邓建阳,林毅佳,“ChatGPT的优势与挑战:综述”,《计算与智能系统前沿》第2期。2(2022)。8《ChatGPT和其他人工智能聊天机器人会带来网络安全风险吗?》“一项探索性研究”,《普适计算中的安全与隐私国际期刊》,第15期。1(2023)。9Joe McKendrick,“谁最终拥有ChatGPT和其他人工智能平台生成的内容?”,《福布斯》,最后修改于2022年12月21日,https://www.forbes.com/sites/joemckendrick/2022/12/21/who-ultimately-owns-content-generated-by-chatgpt-and-other-ai-platforms/?sh=7cd11c7c5423.10马特·伯吉斯,《ChatGPT存在严重的隐私问题》,《连线》,最后修改于2023年4月4日,https://www.wired.com/story/italy-ban-chatgpt-privacy-gdpr/.11蒂凡尼·许和斯图尔特·a·汤普森,《虚假信息研究人员对人工智能聊天机器人发出警告》,《纽约时报》,2023年2月8日最后一次修改,https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html.12 Rudy Guyonneau和Arnaud Le Dez,“数字战争中的人工智能:介绍网络队友的概念”,《网络防御评论》第4期。2 (2019);Charlie Greenbacker和Nic Acton,“如何利用人工智能快速响应俄罗斯-乌克兰冲突中的信息战”,Snorkel,最后修改于2022年2月28日,https://snorkel.ai/ai-response-to-information-warfare/.13 Andrea Bianchi和Anna Greipi,“国家预防恐怖主义和法治:挑战人工智能(AI)的“魔力”,“国际反恐中心,最后修改于2022年11月17日,https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai.14“人工智能定义”,斯坦福大学以人为本的人工智能,https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf(访问于2023年5月5日)菲利普·鲍彻:《人工智能:它是如何工作的,为什么重要,我们能做些什么?》(布鲁塞尔:欧洲议会研究服务,2020),III.16 Stuart C. Shapiro,“人工智能”,在人工智能百科全书中,Stuart C. Shapiro(纽约:Wiley, 1992), 54-7.17“人工智能(AI)与机器学习(ML)”,Microsoft Azure, https://azure.microsoft.com/pl-pl/resources/cloud-computing-dictionary/artificial-intelligence-vs-machine-learning/#introduction(访问于2023年5月6日)“人工智能定义”,斯坦福大学以人为中心的人工智能,https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf(2023年5月6日访问)参见刘家英等人,“21世纪的人工智能”,IEEE Access 99, no。1(2018)”Rockwell Anyoha,《人工智能的历史》,哈佛大学,2017年8月28日,https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/.21《大数据和人工智能:它们如何协同工作》,玛丽维尔大学,https://online.maryville。
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Artificial Intelligence as a Terrorism Enabler? Understanding the Potential Impact of Chatbots and Image Generators on Online Terrorist Activities
AbstractThis paper is based on an experiment-based study carried out in the first half of 2023, which aimed to understand how terrorist organizations can potentially exploit artificial intelligence. It discusses the risks of using AI to produce and disseminate propaganda, as well as verifies whether it can be used to facilitate access to terrorist content. It also explores if AI-based platforms can be used to access terrorism-related know-how. This paper also focuses on understanding the specificity of content moderation procedures introduced by these services to mitigate their use by violent extremists and provides recommendations for increasing their efficiency. Disclosure statementThe author report there are no competing interests to declare.Notes1 Corneliu Bjola, “AI for Development: Implications for Theory and Practice,” Oxford Development Studies 50, no. 1 (2021).2 Spyros Makridakis, “The Forthcoming Artificial Intelligence (AI) Revolution: Its Impact on Society and Firms,” Futures 90 (2017): 46–60.3 “About,” Midjourney, https://www.midjourney.com/home/?callbackUrl=/app/ (accessed April 20, 2023).4 Pascal Kaufmann, Thilo Stadel-mann, Benjamin Grewe, “ChatGPT Heralds Tech Revolution,” Meinung, last modified February 15, 2023, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5e71f505e224b656715c1753/63f327e649b46c9017ccf2b3_20230215_FuW_EN_ChatGPT%20heralds%20tech%20revolution.pdf.5 Krystal Hu, “ChatGPT Sets Record for Fastest-Growing User Base – Analyst Note,” Reuters, last modified February 02, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/technology/chatgpt-sets-record-fastest-growing-user-base-analyst-note-2023-02-01/.6 “Artificial Intelligence: Potential Benefits and Ethical Considerations,” European Parliament Briefing, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/571380/IPOL_BRI (2016)571380_EN.pdf (accessed April 25, 2023).7 Jianyang Deng and Yijia Lin, “The Benefits and Challenges of ChatGPT: An Overview,” Frontiers in Computing and Intelligent Systems 2, no. 2 (2022).8 Glorin Sebastian, „Do ChatGPT and Other AI Chatbots Pose a Cybersecurity Risk? An Exploratory Study,” International Journal of Security and Privacy in Pervasive Computing 15, no. 1 (2023).9 Joe McKendrick, „Who Ultimately Owns Content Generated By ChatGPT And Other AI Platforms?,” Forbes, last modified December 21, 2022, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joemckendrick/2022/12/21/who-ultimately-owns-content-generated-by-chatgpt-and-other-ai-platforms/?sh=7cd11c7c5423.10 Matt Burgess, “ChatGPT Has a Big Privacy Problem,” Wired, last modified April 4, 2023, https://www.wired.com/story/italy-ban-chatgpt-privacy-gdpr/.11 Tiffany Hsu and Stuart A. Thompson, “Disinformation Researchers Raise Alarms About A.I. Chatbots,” The New York Times, last modified February 8, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/08/technology/ai-chatbots-disinformation.html.12 Rudy Guyonneau and Arnaud Le Dez, “Artificial Intelligence in Digital Warfare: Introducing the Concept of the Cyberteammate,” The Cyber Defense Review 4, no. 2 (2019); Charlie Greenbacker and Nic Acton, “How AI Can be Used to Rapidly Respond to Information Warfare in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict,” Snorkel, last modified February 28, 2022, https://snorkel.ai/ai-response-to-information-warfare/.13 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence (AI),” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, last modified November 17, 2022, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai.14 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 5, 2023).15 Philip Boucher, Artificial Intelligence: How Does It Work, Why Does It Matter, and What Can We Do About It? (Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service, 2020), III.16 Stuart C. Shapiro, “Artificial Intelligence,” in Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, ed. Stuart C. Shapiro (New York: Wiley, 1992), 54–7.17 “Artificial Intelligence (AI) vs. machine learning (ML),” Microsoft Azure, https://azure.microsoft.com/pl-pl/resources/cloud-computing-dictionary/artificial-intelligence-vs-machine-learning/#introduction (accessed May 6, 2023).18 “Artificial Intelligence Definitions,” Stanford University Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-09/AI-Definitions-HAI.pdf (accessed May 6, 2023).19 See Jiaying Liu et al., “Artificial Intelligence in the 21st century,” IEEE Access 99, no. 1 (2018).20 Rockwell Anyoha, “The History of Artificial Intelligence,” Harvard University, last modified August 28, 2017, https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/.21 “Big Data and Artificial Intelligence: How They Work Together,” Maryville University, https://online.maryville.edu/blog/big-data-is-too-big-without-ai/ (accessed May 10, 2023).22 DALL-E was launched in 2021. DALL-E 2 was released year later. See “DALL-E 2,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/product/dall-e-2 (accessed May 10, 2023).23 “Introducing ChatGPT,” OpenAI, https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt (accessed May 10, 2023).24 Daniel van Boom, “ChatGPT Can Pass the Bar Exam. Does That Actually Matter?,” CNET, last modified March 19, 2023, https://www.cnet.com/tech/chatgpt-can-pass-the-bar-exam-does-that-actually-matter/.25 Surprising statements from tech giants only fueled controversies in this regard. For instance, in April 2023, the Google CEO admitted that they do not fully understand how the company’s AI – Bard – works. See Alan Martin, “Google CEO Sundar Pichai admits people ‘don’t fully understand’ how chatbot AI works,” Evening Standard, last modified April 17, 2023, https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/google-ceo-sundar-pichai-understand-ai-chatbot-bard-b1074589.html.26 Anoushka Sharma, “Man Asks ChatGPT How to Smuggle Drugs Into Europe, Bot Lists Suggestions,” NDTV, last modified February 6, 2023, https://www.ndtv.com/feature/man-asks-chatgpt-how-to-smuggle-drugs-into-europe-bot-lists-suggestions-3756323.27 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023).28 Vera Lúcia Raposo, “The Use of Facial Recognition Technology by Law Enforcement in Europe: a Non-Orwellian Draft Proposal,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research (2022).29 Enn Tyugu, “Artificial Intelligence in Cyber Defense,” in 2011 3rd International Conference on Cyber Conflict, eds. C. Czosseck, E. Tyugu, T. Wingfield (Tallinn: CCD COE, 2011).30 “Generative Language Models and Automated Influence Operations: Emerging Threats and Potential Mitigations,” OpenAI, https://cdn.openai.com/papers/forecasting-misuse.pdf (accessed May 15, 2023).31 Daniel L. Byman, Chongyang Gao, Chris Meserole, V.S. Subrahmanian, Deepfakes and International Conflict (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 2023); Rachel Baig, “The Deepfakes in the Disinformation War,” DW.com, last modified March 18, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-the-deepfakes-in-the-disinformation-war-between-russia-and-ukraine/a-61166433.32 Countering Terrorism Online with Artificial Intelligence (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, 2021).33 Andrea Bianchi and Anna Greipi, “States’ Prevention of Terrorism and the Rule of Law: Challenging the ‘magic’ of Artificial Intelligence,” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, https://www.icct.nl/publication/states-prevention-terrorism-and-rule-law-challenging-magic-artificial-intelligence-ai (accessed June 1, 2023).34 Hugo Verhelst, Alexander Stannat, Giulio Mecacci, “Machine Learning Against Terrorism: How Big Data Collection and Analysis Influences the Privacy-Security Dilemma,” Science and Engineering Ethics 26 (2020).35 Janus Rose, “OpenAI’s New Chatbot Will Tell You How to Shoplift And Make Explosives,” Vice, last modified December 1, 2022, https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgyp9j/openais-new-chatbot-will-tell-you-how-to-shoplift-and-make-explosives; “Bavabinks,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/bavabinks/status/1653112984212758555 (accessed June 29, 2023).36 Lee Man-jong, “A Study on the Possibility of Terrorism by AI and Its Countermeasures,” International Journal of Military Affairs 3, no. 1 (2018).37 Algorithms and Terrorism: The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence for Terrorist Purposes (New York: United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, 2021).38 Ibid., 8.39 Daniel Siegel and Mary Bennett Doty, “Weapons of Mass Disruption: Artificial Intelligence and the Production of Extremist Propaganda,” Global Network on Extremism & Technology, last modified February 17, 2023, https://gnet-research.org/2023/02/17/weapons-of-mass-disruption-artificial-intelligence-and-the-production-of-extremist-propaganda/.40 Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).41 Maria Diaz, „How to use Bing Chat (and how it’s different from ChatGPT), ZDNET, last modified April 24, 2023, https://www.zdnet.com/article/how-to-use-the-new-bing-and-how-its-different-from-chatgpt/.42 See https://openai.com.43 See https://www.craiyon.com/.44 See https://dream.ai/create.45 See https://www.bing.com/create. It should be, however, noted that Bing Image Creator is based on DALL-E 2.46 ChatGPT. The Impact of Large Language Models on Law Enforcement (The Hague: EUROPOL Innovation Lab, 2023), 5.47 See, for instance: https://www.jailbreakchat.com.48 See Carol K. Winkler and Cori E. Dauber, eds., Visual propaganda and extremism in the online environment (Carlisle: U.S. Army War College Press, 2014).49 See Kamila Słupińska, “Secondary Observation as a Method of Social Media Research: Theoretical Considerations and Implementation,” European Research Studies Journal XXIII, no. 2 (2020).50 Vinton G. Cerf, Patrick S. Ryan, Max Senges, Richard S. Whitt, “IoT safety and security as shared responsibility,” Journal of Business Informatics 35, no. 1 (2016): 10–11.51 See, for instance: “Google and Alphabet Vulnerability Reward Program (VRP) Rules,” Google, https://bughunters.google.com/about/rules/6625378258649088/google-and-alphabet-vulnerability-reward-program-vrp-rules (accessed July 5, 2023).52 It should be emphasized that OpenAI is not against using jailbreaks. See: Maxwell Timothy, “What Are ChatGPT Jailbreaks? Should You Use Them?,” Make Use Of, last modified May 3, 2023, https://www.makeuseof.com/what-are-chatgpt-jailbreaks/.53 See “Explanatory note on potential misuse of research,” European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/portal4/doc/call/h2020/fct-16-2015/1645168-explanatory_note_on_potential_misuse_of_research_en.pdf (accessed July 6, 2023).54 For instance, one Reddit user tricked ChatGPT into giving him detailed instructions on “cooking meth.” The instruction was available on the platform for months. See: https://www.reddit.com (accessed July 6, 2023).55 Stuart Macdonald, Sara Giro Correia, Amy-Louise Watkin, “Regulating Terrorist Content on Social Media: Automation and the Rule of Law,” International Journal of Law in Context 15, no. 2 (2019).56 See Miron Lakomy, “Why Do Online Countering Violent Extremism Strategies Not Work? The Case of Digital Jihad,” Terrorism and Political Violence (2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2038575.57 Pranshu Verma and Will Oremus, “ChatGPT Invented a Sexual Harassment Scandal and Named a Real Law Prof as the Accused,” The Washington Post, last modified April 5, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/04/05/chatgpt-lies/.58 See, for instance: Thomas Frissen et al., “Capitalizing on the Koran to Fuel Online Violent Radicalization: A Taxonomy of Koranic References in ISIS’s Dabiq,” Telematics and Informatics, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/495477 (accessed July 15, 2023).59 See John Hendry and Anthony F. Lemieux, “The Visual and Rhetorical Styles of Atomwaffen Division and their Implications,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 14, no. 2 (2021).60 On the distinction between near and far enemies in the Islamic State’s ideology, see, for instance: Exploiting Disorder: al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2016), 28.61 Mostly text propaganda was considered, although some prompts also focused on other types of productions released by VEOs.62 See Remy Mahzam, “Rumiyah – Jihadist Propaganda & Information Warfare in Cyberspace,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 9, no. 3 (2017).63 On the contents of these magazines, see: Digital Jihad: Online Communication and Violent Extremism, ed. Francesco Marone (Milano: Ledizioni LediPublishing, 2019).64 See Maura Conway, Jodie Parker and Sean Looney, “Online Jihadi Instructional Content: The Role of Magazines,” NATO Series for Peace and Security Series136 (2017).65 On these narratives, see more in: Miron Lakomy, “Recruitment and Incitement to Violence in the Islamic State’s Online Propaganda: Comparative Analysis of Dabiq and Rumiyah,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 44, no. 7 (2021).66 For instance, the pro-Islamic State Afaaq Electronic Foundation of the German-language e-magazine Kybernetiq have been known of focusing on improving OPSEC and cyber security of violent extremists. See Miron Lakomy, “The Virtual ‘Caliphate’ strikes back? Mapping the Islamic State’s Information Ecosystem on the Surface Web,” Security Journal (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-00364-z.67 Online Jihadist Propaganda. 2021 in Review (The Hague: Europol, 2022), 23.68 It should be stressed that the accuracy of these recipies could not be confirmed, due to their highly professional and sensitive nature. In this context, there is a chance that they could contain some mistakes, which are quite common in GPT-3.5, effectively mitigating their practical use for terrorists.69 Daniel Milton, Down but Not Out: An Updated Examination of the Islamic State’s Visual Propaganda (West Point: U.S. Military Academy, 2018); Miron Lakomy, “Cracks in the Online ‘caliphate’: How the Islamic State is Losing Ground in the Battle for Cyberspace,” Perspectives on Terrorism 11, no. 3 (2017).70 See Teresa Quintel, “Data Protection Rules Applicable to Financial Intelligence Units: Still no Clarity in Sight,” ERA Forum 23 (2022).71 “Discord Interface,” Midjourney, https://docs.midjourney.com/docs/midjourney-discord (accessed July 25, 2023).72 On aesthetics of terrorist propaganda, see: Cori E. Dauber et al., “Call of Duty: Jihad – How the Video Game Motif Has Migrated Downstream from Islamic State Propaganda Videos,” Perspectives on Terrorism 13, no. 3 (2019).73 See Olivier Roy, Jihad and Death: The Global Appeal of Islamic State (London: Hurst Publishers, 2017).74 Prompts, which provided the most concerning outcomes from the tested AI platforms, were reported to national and international stakeholders. Subsequentlly, they were analyzed again in June and July 2023. Results of this verification shows that ChatGPT largely upgraded its content moderation procedures by that time. This is proven by the fact that the same prompts that led to generating sensitive knowledge on explosives started to trigger security warnings, which was not the case in March. However, no major differences when it comes to cyber security instructions or methods of avoiding detection from law enforcement agencies were detected.75 See www.jailbreakchat.com.
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来源期刊
CiteScore
5.40
自引率
10.00%
发文量
75
期刊介绍: Terrorism and insurgency are now the dominant forms of conflict in the world today. Fuelled by moribund peace processes, ethnic and religious strife, disputes over natural resources, and transnational organized crime, these longstanding security challenges have become even more violent and intractable: posing new threats to international peace and stability. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism aims to cast new light on the origins and implications of conflict in the 21st Century and to illuminate new approaches and solutions to countering the growth and escalation of contemporary sub-state violence.
期刊最新文献
The Ambivalent Effect of Autocratization on Domestic Terrorism The Islamic State’s Visions of Political Community and Statehood and Their Articulation Vis-à-Vis Nationalism Artificial Intelligence as a Terrorism Enabler? Understanding the Potential Impact of Chatbots and Image Generators on Online Terrorist Activities Truth or Dare? Exploring the Importance of Factual Accuracy in Different Deradicalization Counseling Approaches The Social Identity Analytical Method: Facilitating Social Science-Based Practitioner Analysis of Violent Substate Conflict
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