Leafiness-LiDAR index and NDVI for identification of temporal patterns in super-intensive almond orchards as response to different management strategies

The use of super-intensive orchards is a growing trend in fruit production. The present study aims to improve management of these cropping systems by focusing on how agronomic decisions impact orchard dynamics in the short to medium term and by providing a decision-support approach based on stable temporal patterns from previous seasons. A multitemporal study using remote sensing and LiDAR was conducted in a commercial almond orchard over four growing seasons (2019–2022) to determine the optimal timing of image acquisition for variable pre-harvest treatments. A model-based clustering (mclust) was applied to optimal Sentinel-2 NDVI maps and apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) data, interpolated to the pixel centroids of Sentinel-2 image grids, to delineate potential management zones (PMZs). The leafiness-LiDAR index (LLI), a leaf area index (LAI) estimator, was obtained as ground truth after summer pruning and before harvesting, showing a significant influence of fertigation and pruning on the LAI, with summer pruning particularly influencing orchard dynamics. The optimal time for NDVI mapping was found to be two months after summer pruning in productive years and two weeks after in unproductive years. The delineated PMZs were consistent across seasons and corresponded to significant LAI differences. This method could contribute to improving resource management and sustainability in super-intensive commercial orchards.