Multidecadal variability from ocean to atmosphere in the North Atlantic: Perturbation potential energy as the bridge

The North Atlantic Ocean forcings are considered an important origin of the North Atlantic atmospheric multidecadal variability. Here we reveal the energetics mechanisms of the phenomenon using the perturbation potential energy (PPE) theory. Supporting the previous model studies, a cyclic pattern involving the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) and North Atlantic tripole (NAT) is observed: positive AMO phase (AMO+, similarly hereafter) →NAT−→AMO−→NAT+, with a phase lag of approximately 15~20 years. An atmospheric mode characterized by basin-scale sea level pressure anomaly in the North Atlantic is associated with the AMO, which is termed the North Atlantic uniformity (NAU). The AMO+ induces positive uniform PPE anomalies over the ocean through precipitation heating, leading to decreased energy conversion to perturbation kinetic energy (PKE) and a large-scale anomalous cyclone. For the NAT+, tripolar precipitation anomalies result in tripolar PPE anomalies. Anomalous energy conversions occur where the PPE anomaly gradient is large, explained by an energy balance derived from thermal wind relationship. The PKE around 15°N and 50°N (25°N and 75°N) increases (decreases), forming the anomalous anticyclone and cyclone at subtropical and subpolar region, respectively, known as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). The reverse holds for the NAT− and AMO−. As the phases of the ocean modes alternate, the energetics induce the NAU−, NAO−, NAU+, and NAO+ sequentially. In the multidecadal cycle, the accumulated energetics process is related to delayed effect, and the difference in variance explanation between the NAU and NAO is attributed to the feedback mechanisms.