The combined effect of environmentally relevant doses of glyphosate and high temperature: An integrated and multibiomarker approach to delineate redox status and behavior in Danio rerio

Glyphosate, a pesticide commonly found in aquatic ecosystems, affects this habitat and nontarget organisms such as fish. The increase in water temperature, linked to factors such as climate change, poses a considerable threat. Despite extensive ecotoxicological research, we still do not know the real individual and specific consequences of continued exposure to glyphosate and high temperatures, simulating a scenario where the aquatic environment remains contaminated and temperatures continue to rise. Therefore, in this study, we examined the effects of exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of glyphosate, active ingredient glyphosate (GAI), and glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) in combination with high temperature (34 °C) in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). The fish were acclimated to 28 or 34 °C for 96 h. The exposure to 225 and 450 μg L⁻¹ (GBH or GAI) at 28 or 34 °C for 7 days. We analyzed behavioral endpoints (anxiety-like response, sociability, and aggressivity) and biochemical biomarkers of the brain and muscle (oxidative stress). Anxiety-like responses and decreased sociability were disrupted by the combination of glyphosate and high temperature. Furthermore, there is a decrease in Acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain, and an increase in Lipid Peroxidation, Protein Carbonylation, Acetylcholinesterase activity, and Glutathione S-Transferase activity in the muscle. These results demonstrated oxidative stress, anxiety-like behavior and decreased sociability caused by glyphosate and high temperature. We concluded that the combined effects of glyphosate and high temperature affected redox homeostasis and behavior, emphasizing that the field of glyphosate pollution should be carefully considered when evaluating the effects of climate change.