Unravelling the in vivo biotoxicity of a green-biofabricated graphene oxide–microplastic hybrid mediated by proximal intrinsic atomic interactions†

Graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets have emerged as a potent nanomaterial for a range of applications, such as antibacterial and antibiofilm applications. Besides, microplastics are emerging as a chronic pollutant originating from the aggrandized usage of plastics, posing serious risks to living beings and the environment. In view of this issue, the individual toxicological impacts of GO nanosheets and polystyrene (PS) have received substantial research attention, yet the mechanistic details and toxicological effects of GO and PS combined in a hybrid system remain unknown. Hence, this study evaluated the in vivo biotoxicity of a lab mimic green-synthesized GO@PS hybrid using embryonic zebrafish through experimental and computational approaches. The physiochemical characterization of the GO@PS verified the synthesis of a stable 1433.0 ± 268.0 nm-sized GO@PS hybrid with a zeta potential of −47.3 ± 5.7 mV. Mechanistic analysis results deduced that the toxicological impact caused an induced apoptosis due to dysregulated oxidative stress led by the hypoxic condition created due to blockage of chorion by attachment and accumulation of GO@PS. The study elucidated the in vivo toxicity of GO, PS and GO@PS at cellular and molecular levels to devise measures for the safe usage of GO and PS in terms of environmental and human health aspects.