Higher intake energy, protein, and polyunsaturated fatty acids at dinner versus breakfast increase the risk of hyperhomocysteinemia among adults in the USA.

Abstract

Purpose: This study analyzed the relation of energy and macronutrient intake at dinner versus breakfast with the risk of hyperhomocysteinemia (Hhcy).

Methods: Up to 12,474 adults, in which 1,387 with Hhcy, completed a questionnaire about energy and macronutrient intake in the National Health and Nutrition Examination. The differences (Δ) in that between dinner and breakfast (Δ = dinner - breakfast) were categorized into quartiles. Logistic regression analyses or restrictive cubic spline regressions were conducted to determine the relation in Δ and the risk of Hhcy, as well as the change in risk when 5% energy at dinner was substituted with those at breakfast through isocaloric substitution models.

Results: After adjusted the confounders, results showed that compared to the research objects in the lowest quartile, those in the highest quartile were more prone to get Hhcy (odds ratio (OR)_{Δ energy} = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.03-1.56; OR_{Δ protein} = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.01-1.55; OR_{Δ PUFA} = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.01-1.49, respectively). Isocalorically replacing 5% energy at dinner with energy at breakfast was related to 5% lower Hhcy risk. Replacing 5% of energy provided by protein at dinner with that by protein or PUFA at breakfast was related to 10% and 11% lower Hhcy risk, respectively. Replacing 5% energy provided by PUFA at dinner with that by protein or PUFA at breakfast were associated with 8% and 6% lower Hhcy risk, respectively.

Conclusion: The optimal intake period for energy, protein, and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake for reducing Hhcy risk in adults was the morning.