Atomic Ordering-Induced Ensemble Variation in Alloys Governs Electrocatalyst On/Off States

Abstract

The catalytic behavior of a material is influenced by ensembles─the geometric configuration of atoms on the surface. In conventional material systems, ensemble effects and the electronic structure are coupled because these strategies focus on varying the material composition, making it difficult to understand the role of ensembles in isolation. This study introduces a methodology that separates geometric effects from the electronic structure. To tune the Pd ensemble size on the catalyst surface, we compared the reactivity of structurally different but compositionally identical Pd₃Bi intermetallic and solid solution alloys. Pd₃Bi intermetallics display no reactivity for methanol oxidation (MOR), while their solid solution counterparts show significant reactivity (0.5 mA cm_Pd^–2). Intermetallics form smaller ensembles (1, 3, 4, and 5 atoms across all low-energy facets), whereas solid solution Pd₃Bi has several facets that support larger Pd ensembles, with an average size of 5.25 atoms and up to 6 atoms. A partially ordered Pd₃Bi (a mixed phase of intermetallic and solid solution) alloy shows intermediate MOR activity (0.1 mA cm_Pd^–2), confirming that methanol oxidation activity tracks with the average ensemble size. All Pd₃Bi alloys maintained similar electronic structures, as confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) valence band spectroscopy and X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) measurements, indicating that reactivity differences arise from variations in the ensemble size induced by differences in the atomic ordering. Our findings offer an approach for designing materials with controllable active site configurations while maintaining the catalyst’s electronic structure, thereby enabling more efficient catalyst design.