Working Hours in 13th Century Paris

Methods for determining the exact time by artisans and merchants of Paris in the 13th century considered in the paper on the material of the regulations of the “Book of Crafts” and the statutes on Parisian trade duties. The focus is on “hours” (“hour” as a synonym for “time”, the first, third and ninth hours of the dayetc.) and their relationship with other criteria that determined the start and end of the working day: the bell ringing, the cry of the herald, the actions of other artisans and townspeople. This allowed the author to correct ideas about natural cycles and “church time” as key ways of determining time, to show the need of urban artisansand merchants for a more accurate accounting and definition of time in general and its individual momentsduring the day, the need to use different methods of estimating the time of day and, accordingly, of working time, the need to overcome the subjectivity of the workshop owner or client.