3D and 4D printed materials for cardiac transplantation: Advances in biogenerative engineering

The most common reason for death worldwide is cardiovascular problems, and current treatments including medication, surgery, and heart transplants have disadvantages. Both 3D and 4D printing technologies are being investigated due to the demand for sophisticated solutions in cardiac care. With the use of these technologies, it may be possible to construct intricate circulatory systems, provide individualized care, and find solutions to problems like organ shortages and immune rejection. The paper focuses on various bioprinting methods that may be used in cardiac tissue engineering to create biomimetic structures, improve vascularization, and construct functional heart tissues using 3D and 4D manufacturing. The advancement of 3D and 4D printing procedures has led to substantial advancements in heart tissue engineering by offering precise and customized solutions. These technologies make it possible to fabricate intricate cardiovascular models along with medical equipment, which improves surgical planning and allows for patient-specific therapies. There are still challenges to be solved, primarily in the areas of realistic vascularization and the use of biomaterials that resemble natural cardiac tissue in terms of their mechanical and chemical properties. Technologies for 3D and 4D printing hold promise for resolving major issues with heart transplantation, namely donor scarcity and rejection. Improving vascularization along with biomaterial incorporation for therapeutic applications has to be the main goal of future research.