Children as pawns on the national Chess board: children in Israel’s 1948 war of Independence

IF 1 3区 历史学 Q3 FAMILY STUDIES History of the Family Pub Date : 2023-11-08 DOI:10.1080/1081602x.2023.2274068
Lilach Rosenberg-Friedman
{"title":"Children as pawns on the national Chess board: children in Israel’s 1948 war of Independence","authors":"Lilach Rosenberg-Friedman","doi":"10.1080/1081602x.2023.2274068","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACTThe article examines how nationalism shapes perceptions of childhood and defines the role of children in a national struggle, and the challenges of implementing these perceptions during wartime, while explores the evacuation of children during the Israeli War of Independence (1948) as a case study. While nationalism played a central role in shaping the society's perceptions of children's roles, practical constraints and other perceptions exerted a significant influence. While the leadership opposed evacuation, the question of whether the presence of children on frontline settlements strengthened or weakened their fight was disputed among their members. Mothers both wanted their children with them to boost morale and wished them to be safe far away. Some accepted that they could play a vital role, others supported their evacuation so they could play their own part without hindrance. These dilemmas were compounded by the fact that children served as emotional and mental supports for both the family and the collective. The trauma of the Holocaust heightened this aspect of the double bind. The tension between child welfare vs. national goals often led to last-minute decisions. Children were thus more often evacuated under live fire rather than in the pre-planned, organized fashion characteristic of the 2WW Blitz in Britain. Despite the national principles aligning children with the well-being of the nation, their application during wartime proved intricate and contingent upon specific circumstances and the immediate danger faced by children. The harsh reality highlights the modern concept of childhood and the traditional concept of motherhood. It concludes that a child's role in national warfare is characterized by both conceptual complexity and practical flexibility. Especially in a traditional and national society striving for modernity as Israeli society. Furthermore, even in an existential war, national indoctrination can encounter limitations in its power and influence.KEYWORDS: Perceptions of childhoodchildrenfamilymotherhoodnational societieswarevacuationBritainIsrael Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.Notes1. https://www.haaretz.co.il/news/world/europe/2022-05-08/ty-article-live/.premium/00000180-a35a-d0ae-adf5-bbdecf720000 (8 March, 2022).2. The present article only treats the evacuation of children from war zones, not relating to the deliberate bringing of children into areas of conflicts by Palestinians/settlers and their use of ‘human shields’ by terror organizations. This is a topic for separate research.3. Dotan Gabbai, ‘The “Breath of Breeze” will continue: So far over 12,000 residents have been refreshed’: https://www.mivzaklive.co.il/archives/684531.4. Also known as the 1948 War. Herein, I employ the standard terminology of the period by Israelis because I am discussing the evacuation of children in the Israeli rather than Palestinian context. While one of the most dramatic consequences of this war was the emergence of the question of Palestinians refugees, the status of Palestinian children during this period requires a separate study.5. I thank the anonymous reviewer for this comment.6. Israel’s declaration occurred on the afternoon of May 14, with formal establishment post-midnight on the 15th, while the British withdrawal wasn’t complete until August 1948.7. For instance, until 1967, due to ongoing security tensions, in the kibbutzim located in the northern part of the country, children would sleep in shelters every night, illustrating the deep-seated policy of non-evacuation.8. United Kibbutz archive, United Kibbutz council meeting, 29 June, 1948, 1B/7/33.9. On May 13, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion, the largest of the bloc’s settlements, was captured, and on May 14, the other three kibbutzim surrendered to the Arab Legion.10. For example: Kibbutz Be’erot Yitzhak. Shimon Forscher’s interview with Rami Haruvi (Barukhi, Citation2009, p. 79‒80).11. United Kibbutz archive, ‘The Fight for Ramat Rachel’, 31 May, 1948, Ehud Raman files.12. Despite the ban on leaving, some of the inhabitants of besieged Jerusalem came up with ‘creative’ ways of doing so.13. Nahum Sarig, an IDF commander in the War of Independence in the Negev Brigade (Oren, Citation1988a, p. 63).14. Itzhak M., Kibbutz Tirat Tzvi (Bar-Giora, Citation1950, p. 51‒53).15. Yad Tabenkin archive, Uri Milshtein interviewing Ulani Shaul, Kibbutz Nitzanim, 19 April, 1984, 25/41/2; Eli N., Kibbutz Gesher (Kibbutz, Citation1958, p. 76).16. See also IDF archive, 922/75/283.17. Etzioni (Citation1951), p. 126‒27; quoted in Tal (Citation2006, p. 249).18. For the Kibbutz Kinneret testimonies, see Habas (Citation1950, p. 191‒93).19. Kibbutz Be’erot Yitzhak archive, interview with Shimon Forscher, commander of Be’erot Yitzhak, 28 April, 1992.20. Author interview with Zipora Bilig, Alon Shvut, 26 October, 1999.21. Yad Tabenkin archive, report of 16 May, 1948, Central Galilee collection, Ehud Raman files, 25 m/2.22. I did not find a gender distinction in evacuation regarding the children, and it seems that boys and girls were treated the same.23. Shimon Forscher’s interview with Rami Haruvi (Barukhi, Citation2009, p. 79‒80).24. ‘Ruhama in the Weapons’ Search and during the Evacuation of the Children’, Hashavua (organ of the National Kibbutz Movement) 1557, 9 May, 1986, p. 7.25. Author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion; cf. also Knohl (Citation1954), p. 98; Bar-Giora (Citation1950, p. 51‒52 (Yitzhak M.).26. Religious Kibbutz archive, interviews Dolly Ben-Eliezer conducted with Rivka Nedivi and Rachel Doron, 13 May, 1993, Gush Etzion, 1948.27. Author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion.28. Author interview with Hannah Yair, 6 March, 2001, Kibbutz Yavneh.29. Religious Kibbutz archive, Dolly Ben-Eliezer’s interview of Miriam Livneh, 13 May, 1993, File: Gush Etzion, 1948.30. Gush Etzion archive, testimony of Zippora Katz, personal files, Zippora Rosenfeld.31. Dov Knohl (Ben-Yaacov, Citation1983, p. 270).32. Testimonies in Raz (Citation1951).33. See the report given by the Kibbutz Kfar Etzion representative in Jerusalem (Knohl, Citation1954, p. 103); author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion.34. Etzioni (Citation1951), quoted in Tal (Citation2006), p. 25435. Ibid, quoted in Tal (Citation2006), p. 25536. Yitzhak E (Bar-Giora, Citation1950, p. 112).37. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Ben-Zion Gradinowski, 18 April and 25 February, 1948, Letters from the Besieged.38. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Dov Knohl, Diary, 5 January, 1948.39. Dov Knohl (Sharir, Citation2019, p. 188).40. 7 January, 1948, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Letters from the Besieged.41. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, interview with Rachel Tilman, Beit Yannai, 19 October, 1998, Files of casualties.42. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Yehoshua Sadiel, Fathers’ letters to their families, 13.43. Religious Kibbutz archive, Dolly Ben-Eliezer’s interview with Rivka Nedivi and Rachel Doron, 13 May, 1993, File: Gush Etzion, 1948.44. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Letter from Zippora Rosenfeld to Zippora Bilig, 16 April, 1948, Letters from the Besieged, 20.45. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Moshe Schechter, Letters from the Besieged.46. S. Gadiel, ‘The Last Seder under Siege – The First Seder in the Liberated Village’, Hatzophe, 12 April, 1968, 15.47. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Tzvi Sheinfeld, Letters from the Besieged.48. Religious Zionism archive in Jerusalem, Letter from the Kfar Etzion and Masu’ot Yitzhak representatives to the Jewish Agency administration, 9 April, 1948, 18–2036.49. Gush Etzion archive, Natan S. and Shimon H., Protocol of members’ meeting, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion, n.d. According to Hannah, one of the evacuated mothers, the mothers’ demand to bring the teachers to them ‘did not meet with the desired understanding in Yavneh’ (Hannah E., in Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 26).50. Yitzhak E (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 32‒33).51. Many children were bored in the evacuation accommodation provided for them, which was much more confined than the kibbutz: see Dov Rapel (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 18).52. Yitzhak E (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 33).53. Child development and growth requiring good care, complex, persistent psychological problems arise from tension and abuse during evacuation (Dodd, Citation2020).54. e.g., Renan Netzer, ‘Mom, when you die do you hear the colour red?’: https://www.mako.co.il/health-wellness/mental-health/Article-67795da0f868471027.htm; idem, ‘Wrapped in trauma: A huge project due to the mental price paid in the Gaza Strip’: https://www.hashomrim.org/heb-special-projects/trauma.","PeriodicalId":46118,"journal":{"name":"History of the Family","volume":"105 s411","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":1.0000,"publicationDate":"2023-11-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"History of the Family","FirstCategoryId":"1085","ListUrlMain":"https://doi.org/10.1080/1081602x.2023.2274068","RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q3","JCRName":"FAMILY STUDIES","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0

Abstract

ABSTRACTThe article examines how nationalism shapes perceptions of childhood and defines the role of children in a national struggle, and the challenges of implementing these perceptions during wartime, while explores the evacuation of children during the Israeli War of Independence (1948) as a case study. While nationalism played a central role in shaping the society's perceptions of children's roles, practical constraints and other perceptions exerted a significant influence. While the leadership opposed evacuation, the question of whether the presence of children on frontline settlements strengthened or weakened their fight was disputed among their members. Mothers both wanted their children with them to boost morale and wished them to be safe far away. Some accepted that they could play a vital role, others supported their evacuation so they could play their own part without hindrance. These dilemmas were compounded by the fact that children served as emotional and mental supports for both the family and the collective. The trauma of the Holocaust heightened this aspect of the double bind. The tension between child welfare vs. national goals often led to last-minute decisions. Children were thus more often evacuated under live fire rather than in the pre-planned, organized fashion characteristic of the 2WW Blitz in Britain. Despite the national principles aligning children with the well-being of the nation, their application during wartime proved intricate and contingent upon specific circumstances and the immediate danger faced by children. The harsh reality highlights the modern concept of childhood and the traditional concept of motherhood. It concludes that a child's role in national warfare is characterized by both conceptual complexity and practical flexibility. Especially in a traditional and national society striving for modernity as Israeli society. Furthermore, even in an existential war, national indoctrination can encounter limitations in its power and influence.KEYWORDS: Perceptions of childhoodchildrenfamilymotherhoodnational societieswarevacuationBritainIsrael Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.Notes1. https://www.haaretz.co.il/news/world/europe/2022-05-08/ty-article-live/.premium/00000180-a35a-d0ae-adf5-bbdecf720000 (8 March, 2022).2. The present article only treats the evacuation of children from war zones, not relating to the deliberate bringing of children into areas of conflicts by Palestinians/settlers and their use of ‘human shields’ by terror organizations. This is a topic for separate research.3. Dotan Gabbai, ‘The “Breath of Breeze” will continue: So far over 12,000 residents have been refreshed’: https://www.mivzaklive.co.il/archives/684531.4. Also known as the 1948 War. Herein, I employ the standard terminology of the period by Israelis because I am discussing the evacuation of children in the Israeli rather than Palestinian context. While one of the most dramatic consequences of this war was the emergence of the question of Palestinians refugees, the status of Palestinian children during this period requires a separate study.5. I thank the anonymous reviewer for this comment.6. Israel’s declaration occurred on the afternoon of May 14, with formal establishment post-midnight on the 15th, while the British withdrawal wasn’t complete until August 1948.7. For instance, until 1967, due to ongoing security tensions, in the kibbutzim located in the northern part of the country, children would sleep in shelters every night, illustrating the deep-seated policy of non-evacuation.8. United Kibbutz archive, United Kibbutz council meeting, 29 June, 1948, 1B/7/33.9. On May 13, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion, the largest of the bloc’s settlements, was captured, and on May 14, the other three kibbutzim surrendered to the Arab Legion.10. For example: Kibbutz Be’erot Yitzhak. Shimon Forscher’s interview with Rami Haruvi (Barukhi, Citation2009, p. 79‒80).11. United Kibbutz archive, ‘The Fight for Ramat Rachel’, 31 May, 1948, Ehud Raman files.12. Despite the ban on leaving, some of the inhabitants of besieged Jerusalem came up with ‘creative’ ways of doing so.13. Nahum Sarig, an IDF commander in the War of Independence in the Negev Brigade (Oren, Citation1988a, p. 63).14. Itzhak M., Kibbutz Tirat Tzvi (Bar-Giora, Citation1950, p. 51‒53).15. Yad Tabenkin archive, Uri Milshtein interviewing Ulani Shaul, Kibbutz Nitzanim, 19 April, 1984, 25/41/2; Eli N., Kibbutz Gesher (Kibbutz, Citation1958, p. 76).16. See also IDF archive, 922/75/283.17. Etzioni (Citation1951), p. 126‒27; quoted in Tal (Citation2006, p. 249).18. For the Kibbutz Kinneret testimonies, see Habas (Citation1950, p. 191‒93).19. Kibbutz Be’erot Yitzhak archive, interview with Shimon Forscher, commander of Be’erot Yitzhak, 28 April, 1992.20. Author interview with Zipora Bilig, Alon Shvut, 26 October, 1999.21. Yad Tabenkin archive, report of 16 May, 1948, Central Galilee collection, Ehud Raman files, 25 m/2.22. I did not find a gender distinction in evacuation regarding the children, and it seems that boys and girls were treated the same.23. Shimon Forscher’s interview with Rami Haruvi (Barukhi, Citation2009, p. 79‒80).24. ‘Ruhama in the Weapons’ Search and during the Evacuation of the Children’, Hashavua (organ of the National Kibbutz Movement) 1557, 9 May, 1986, p. 7.25. Author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion; cf. also Knohl (Citation1954), p. 98; Bar-Giora (Citation1950, p. 51‒52 (Yitzhak M.).26. Religious Kibbutz archive, interviews Dolly Ben-Eliezer conducted with Rivka Nedivi and Rachel Doron, 13 May, 1993, Gush Etzion, 1948.27. Author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion.28. Author interview with Hannah Yair, 6 March, 2001, Kibbutz Yavneh.29. Religious Kibbutz archive, Dolly Ben-Eliezer’s interview of Miriam Livneh, 13 May, 1993, File: Gush Etzion, 1948.30. Gush Etzion archive, testimony of Zippora Katz, personal files, Zippora Rosenfeld.31. Dov Knohl (Ben-Yaacov, Citation1983, p. 270).32. Testimonies in Raz (Citation1951).33. See the report given by the Kibbutz Kfar Etzion representative in Jerusalem (Knohl, Citation1954, p. 103); author interview with Leah Sadiel, 26 October, 1999, Kfar Etzion.34. Etzioni (Citation1951), quoted in Tal (Citation2006), p. 25435. Ibid, quoted in Tal (Citation2006), p. 25536. Yitzhak E (Bar-Giora, Citation1950, p. 112).37. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Ben-Zion Gradinowski, 18 April and 25 February, 1948, Letters from the Besieged.38. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Dov Knohl, Diary, 5 January, 1948.39. Dov Knohl (Sharir, Citation2019, p. 188).40. 7 January, 1948, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Letters from the Besieged.41. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, interview with Rachel Tilman, Beit Yannai, 19 October, 1998, Files of casualties.42. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Yehoshua Sadiel, Fathers’ letters to their families, 13.43. Religious Kibbutz archive, Dolly Ben-Eliezer’s interview with Rivka Nedivi and Rachel Doron, 13 May, 1993, File: Gush Etzion, 1948.44. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Letter from Zippora Rosenfeld to Zippora Bilig, 16 April, 1948, Letters from the Besieged, 20.45. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Moshe Schechter, Letters from the Besieged.46. S. Gadiel, ‘The Last Seder under Siege – The First Seder in the Liberated Village’, Hatzophe, 12 April, 1968, 15.47. Kibbutz Kfar Etzion archive, Tzvi Sheinfeld, Letters from the Besieged.48. Religious Zionism archive in Jerusalem, Letter from the Kfar Etzion and Masu’ot Yitzhak representatives to the Jewish Agency administration, 9 April, 1948, 18–2036.49. Gush Etzion archive, Natan S. and Shimon H., Protocol of members’ meeting, Kibbutz Kfar Etzion, n.d. According to Hannah, one of the evacuated mothers, the mothers’ demand to bring the teachers to them ‘did not meet with the desired understanding in Yavneh’ (Hannah E., in Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 26).50. Yitzhak E (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 32‒33).51. Many children were bored in the evacuation accommodation provided for them, which was much more confined than the kibbutz: see Dov Rapel (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 18).52. Yitzhak E (Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 33).53. Child development and growth requiring good care, complex, persistent psychological problems arise from tension and abuse during evacuation (Dodd, Citation2020).54. e.g., Renan Netzer, ‘Mom, when you die do you hear the colour red?’: https://www.mako.co.il/health-wellness/mental-health/Article-67795da0f868471027.htm; idem, ‘Wrapped in trauma: A huge project due to the mental price paid in the Gaza Strip’: https://www.hashomrim.org/heb-special-projects/trauma.
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儿童是国家棋盘上的棋子:1948年以色列独立战争中的儿童
亚德·塔本金档案,1948年5月16日报告,加利利中部收藏,埃胡德·拉曼档案,25米/2.22。我没有发现在儿童撤离方面有性别差别,似乎男孩和女孩受到同样的待遇。24. Shimon Forscher采访Rami Haruvi (Barukhi, Citation2009, p. 79-80)。“搜查武器和撤离儿童时的鲁哈马”,《哈沙瓦报》(全国基布兹运动机关报)1557,1986年5月9日,第7.25页。作者对Leah Sadiel的采访,1999年10月26日,Kfar Etzion;也参见Knohl (Citation1954),第98页;26. Bar-Giora (citation, 1950, p. 51-52)。宗教基布兹档案,1993年5月13日,Dolly Ben-Eliezer对Rivka Nedivi和Rachel Doron进行的采访,Gush Etzion, 1948 - 27。作者对Leah Sadiel的采访,1999年10月26日,Kfar etzion。作者对Hannah Yair的采访,2001年3月6日,基布兹yavne29。宗教基布兹档案,Dolly Ben-Eliezer对Miriam Livneh的采访,1993年5月13日,文件:Gush Etzion, 198.30。古什·埃齐翁档案,齐波拉·卡茨证词,个人档案,齐波拉·罗森菲尔德,31。Dov Knohl (Ben-Yaacov, Citation1983, p. 270).32。33.在拉兹的证词(引文,1951)。见基布兹Kfar Etzion驻耶路撒冷代表的报告(Knohl, Citation1954,第103页);作者对Leah Sadiel的采访,1999年10月26日,Kfar etzion。Etzioni (Citation1951),引自Tal (Citation2006),第25435页。同上,引自Tal (Citation2006),第25536页。Yitzhak E (Bar-Giora, Citation1950,第112页).37。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,Ben-Zion Gradinowski, 1948年4月18日和2月25日,被围困者的信件。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,Dov Knohl,日记,1948年1月5日。Dov Knohl (Sharir, Citation2019, p. 188).40。1948年1月7日,基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,《被围困者的来信》。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,对Rachel Tilman的采访,贝特延奈,1998年10月19日,伤亡档案。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,Yehoshua Sadiel,父亲给家人的信,13.43。宗教基布兹档案,1993年5月13日,多莉·本-埃利泽对里夫卡·内迪维和雷切尔·多伦的采访,档案:Gush Etzion, 19848.44。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,1948年4月16日,zipora Rosenfeld给zipora Bilig的信,被围困者的信,1945年。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,Moshe Schechter,来自被围困者的信件,46。S. Gadiel,“围攻下的最后一次家宴——解放村的第一次家宴”,Hatzophe, 1968年4月12日,15.47页。基布兹Kfar Etzion档案,Tzvi Sheinfeld,来自被围困者的信件,48。耶路撒冷的宗教犹太复国主义档案,Kfar Etzion和Masu 'ot Yitzhak代表给犹太机构行政当局的信,1948年4月9日,18-2036.49。Gush Etzion档案,Natan S.和Shimon H.,成员会议议定书,Kibbutz Kfar Etzion, n.d。据一位被疏散的母亲Hannah说,母亲们把老师带到他们那里的要求“在Yavneh没有得到期望的理解”(Hannah E.,在Kvutsat, Citation1950, p. 26)。Yitzhak E (Kvutsat, citation, 1950, p. 32-33).51。许多儿童在为他们提供的疏散住所感到无聊,那里比基布兹狭窄得多:见Dov Rapel (Kvutsat, Citation1950,第18页)。Yitzhak E (Kvutsat,引文1950,第33页).53。儿童的发展和成长需要良好的照顾,复杂的,持续的心理问题产生于疏散期间的紧张和虐待(Dodd, Citation2020)。54。“妈妈,你死的时候会听到红色吗?””:https://www.mako.co.il/health - wellness/mental health/article - 67795 - da0f868471027.htm;idem,“笼罩在创伤之中:由于在加沙地带付出的精神代价而导致的巨大项目”:https://www.hashomrim.org/heb-special-projects/trauma。
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期刊介绍: The History of the Family: An International Quarterly makes a significant contribution by publishing works reflecting new developments in scholarship and by charting new directions in the historical study of the family. Further emphasizing the international developments in historical research on the family, the Quarterly encourages articles on comparative research across various cultures and societies in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific Rim, in addition to Europe, the United States and Canada, as well as work in the context of global history.
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