The ground water quality depends on the level of interaction of water and soil, the composition of the recharge water, soil combined with gas and rocks with which the water comes in contact with the unsaturated zone, reactions and the residential time which is taking place inside the aquifer. Henceforth, defined variations could be seen even in the common parts, specifically in the places of rocks of varied compositions and the occurrence of solubility. There are many factors affecting the quality of ground water and surface water. The physical and chemical changes happen to the water which is moving under or over the surface of the land. This type of change is due to either the human activities and/or the natural factors. There are three major factors which are to be considered during the assessment of the quality of water. They are physical factors, chemical factors and biological factors.
{"title":"Factors Affecting the Quality of Water","authors":"Priya Deivasigamani, Shantakumar Balakrishnan, Tamilanban Thamaraikani","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch2","url":null,"abstract":"The ground water quality depends on the level of interaction of water and soil, the composition of the recharge water, soil combined with gas and rocks with which the water comes in contact with the unsaturated zone, reactions and the residential time which is taking place inside the aquifer. Henceforth, defined variations could be seen even in the common parts, specifically in the places of rocks of varied compositions and the occurrence of solubility. There are many factors affecting the quality of ground water and surface water. The physical and chemical changes happen to the water which is moving under or over the surface of the land. This type of change is due to either the human activities and/or the natural factors. There are three major factors which are to be considered during the assessment of the quality of water. They are physical factors, chemical factors and biological factors.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73426388","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch5
M. K. Kathiravan, Senthil M Palaniappan, Narayanan Jayasankar
Drugs like (beta)-blockers (atenolol, propranolol, metoprolol), ACE inhibitors (captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, ramipril, fosinopril, quinapril), angiotensin (AT1) receptor blockers (losartan, candesartan, valsartan, telmisartan), (alpha)-blockers (prazosin, terazosin, doxazosin, phentolamine, phenoxybenzamine), central sympatholytics (clonidine, methyldopa), cardiac glycosides (digoxin, digitoxin), sympathetic drugs (adrenaline, dopamine, isoprenaline), anticholinergic drugs (atropine, scopolamine), xanthines (theophylline, theobromine), nitrates (glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate), calcium antagonists (verapamil, diltiazem) and K-channel openers (nicorandil) are used for the treatment of the cardiovascular disorder [1]. Recently a study was conducted on the occurrence of cardiovascular drugs in surface waters at a global scale. The study had 82 cardiovascular drugs out of which 58 (~71%) were detected at least once in the water bodies. The study also revealed that only 10% of the aquatic pollution was caused by the commonly prescribed antihypertensives (6% by angiotensin receptor-II antagonist and 4% by ACE inhibitors). The maximum contribution as a source of pollutants were from (beta)-blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol) at 38% and 36% to lipid regulating agents (gemfibrozil, bezafibrate and clofibric acid). The ecotoxicity caused by these cardiovascular drugs was further limited to about 24%. The drugs that are a major risk to the aquatic organisms include propranolol, metoprolol, lipid regulating agents, bezafibrate, and atorvastatin. The partition coefficient (Log P) value of cardiovascular drugs ranges from 0.6 for atenolol to 7.7 for telmisartan that results in bioaccumulation in the environmental matrices. Based on the presence of cardiovascular drugs in the aquatic ecosystem, the water pollutants are divided into three major contaminants, municipal water, surface water, and drinking water.
药物如(beta) -阻滞剂(阿替洛尔，普萘洛尔，美托洛尔)，ACE抑制剂(卡托普利，依那普利，赖诺普利，雷米普利，福辛普利，喹诺普利)，血管紧张素(AT1)受体阻滞剂(氯沙坦，坎地沙坦，缬沙坦，替米沙坦)，(alpha) -阻滞剂(普拉唑嗪，特拉唑嗪，多沙唑嗪，酚妥拉明，苯氧苄胺)，中枢交感神经抑制剂(氯定，甲基多巴)，心脏糖苷(地高辛、地高辛)、交感神经药物(肾上腺素、多巴胺、异丙肾上腺素)、抗胆碱能药物(阿托品、东莨菪碱)、黄嘌呤(茶碱、可可碱)、硝酸盐(三硝酸甘油、硝酸异山梨酯)、钙拮抗剂(维拉帕米、地尔硫卓)和k通道开放剂(尼可地尔)用于治疗心血管疾病bbb。最近对全球范围内地表水中心血管药物的发生情况进行了研究。这项研究有82种心血管药物，其中58种(71种)%) were detected at least once in the water bodies. The study also revealed that only 10% of the aquatic pollution was caused by the commonly prescribed antihypertensives (6% by angiotensin receptor-II antagonist and 4% by ACE inhibitors). The maximum contribution as a source of pollutants were from (beta)-blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol) at 38% and 36% to lipid regulating agents (gemfibrozil, bezafibrate and clofibric acid). The ecotoxicity caused by these cardiovascular drugs was further limited to about 24%. The drugs that are a major risk to the aquatic organisms include propranolol, metoprolol, lipid regulating agents, bezafibrate, and atorvastatin. The partition coefficient (Log P) value of cardiovascular drugs ranges from 0.6 for atenolol to 7.7 for telmisartan that results in bioaccumulation in the environmental matrices. Based on the presence of cardiovascular drugs in the aquatic ecosystem, the water pollutants are divided into three major contaminants, municipal water, surface water, and drinking water.
{"title":"Pharmaceuticals as Pollutants in the Aquatic Ecosystem – Cardiovascular, Anti-diabetic, Steroids and Related Drugs","authors":"M. K. Kathiravan, Senthil M Palaniappan, Narayanan Jayasankar","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch5","url":null,"abstract":"Drugs like (beta)-blockers (atenolol, propranolol, metoprolol), ACE inhibitors (captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, ramipril, fosinopril, quinapril), angiotensin (AT1) receptor blockers (losartan, candesartan, valsartan, telmisartan), (alpha)-blockers (prazosin, terazosin, doxazosin, phentolamine, phenoxybenzamine), central sympatholytics (clonidine, methyldopa), cardiac glycosides (digoxin, digitoxin), sympathetic drugs (adrenaline, dopamine, isoprenaline), anticholinergic drugs (atropine, scopolamine), xanthines (theophylline, theobromine), nitrates (glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate), calcium antagonists (verapamil, diltiazem) and K-channel openers (nicorandil) are used for the treatment of the cardiovascular disorder [1]. Recently a study was conducted on the occurrence of cardiovascular drugs in surface waters at a global scale. The study had 82 cardiovascular drugs out of which 58 (~71%) were detected at least once in the water bodies. The study also revealed that only 10% of the aquatic pollution was caused by the commonly prescribed antihypertensives (6% by angiotensin receptor-II antagonist and 4% by ACE inhibitors). The maximum contribution as a source of pollutants were from (beta)-blockers (atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol) at 38% and 36% to lipid regulating agents (gemfibrozil, bezafibrate and clofibric acid). The ecotoxicity caused by these cardiovascular drugs was further limited to about 24%. The drugs that are a major risk to the aquatic organisms include propranolol, metoprolol, lipid regulating agents, bezafibrate, and atorvastatin. The partition coefficient (Log P) value of cardiovascular drugs ranges from 0.6 for atenolol to 7.7 for telmisartan that results in bioaccumulation in the environmental matrices. Based on the presence of cardiovascular drugs in the aquatic ecosystem, the water pollutants are divided into three major contaminants, municipal water, surface water, and drinking water.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80746667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6
M. M. Raja, M. K. Kathiravan
The surface of the earth is covered with about 71% of water. Water constitutes 50 to 70% weight of the entire plants and animals, including humans. The physical and chemical changes of water happen either due to the human activities and/or the natural factors. The increasing usage of prescribed pharmaceuticals estimates that, by end of 2020, the global need would reach 4500 billion doses. The pharmaceuticals after consumption are excreted from the human body in their parent form or as metabolites and conjugate forms. Some of the widely used drugs or active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are detected in various water resources and found to affect the quality of aquatic life species. The impact of the discharge of the pharmaceuticals into aquatic streams in a definite range is unlikely to elicit acute toxicity and their existence also affects the human health as well as agriculture and marine culture. The most relevant approach to decrease the presence of pharmaceuticals in water bodies is to avoid and/or decrease their entry into the water environment. This reduction could be attained through combined preventive measures through specific regulatory bodies which includes enhanced communication to the public on rational drug use and proper disposal of pharmaceuticals.
{"title":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","authors":"M. M. Raja, M. K. Kathiravan","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6","url":null,"abstract":"The surface of the earth is covered with about 71% of water. Water constitutes 50 to 70% weight of the entire plants and animals, including humans. The physical and chemical changes of water happen either due to the human activities and/or the natural factors. The increasing usage of prescribed pharmaceuticals estimates that, by end of 2020, the global need would reach 4500 billion doses. The pharmaceuticals after consumption are excreted from the human body in their parent form or as metabolites and conjugate forms. Some of the widely used drugs or active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are detected in various water resources and found to affect the quality of aquatic life species. The impact of the discharge of the pharmaceuticals into aquatic streams in a definite range is unlikely to elicit acute toxicity and their existence also affects the human health as well as agriculture and marine culture. The most relevant approach to decrease the presence of pharmaceuticals in water bodies is to avoid and/or decrease their entry into the water environment. This reduction could be attained through combined preventive measures through specific regulatory bodies which includes enhanced communication to the public on rational drug use and proper disposal of pharmaceuticals.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88869823","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch4
Srimathi Radha, Anjana Gopi Valsaladevi, M. Krishnan
Antibiotics came into existence with its discovery in 1929 by Alexander Fleming. With the advancement of science and the progress of drug discovery process led to the introduction of 160 novel antibiotics from synthetic and semi-synthetic origin during the period 1940-1970. The consumption had seen a steady rise of about 42.3 billion daily defined doses (DDD) between the years 2000 and 2015. In spite of antibiotic resistance still antibiotics consumption are found to increase on a higher scale of about 67% by 2030. Thus, the largest selling proposition of antibiotics makes it easily available for detection in sewage, wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments. Globally, 10% of antibiotics usage occurs from hospitals and 80% occurs from community usage.
{"title":"Pharmaceuticals as Pollutants in the Aquatic Ecosystem – Antibiotics, Anti-inflammatory and Anti-psychotic Drugs","authors":"Srimathi Radha, Anjana Gopi Valsaladevi, M. Krishnan","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch4","url":null,"abstract":"Antibiotics came into existence with its discovery in 1929 by Alexander Fleming. With the advancement of science and the progress of drug discovery process led to the introduction of 160 novel antibiotics from synthetic and semi-synthetic origin during the period 1940-1970. The consumption had seen a steady rise of about 42.3 billion daily defined doses (DDD) between the years 2000 and 2015. In spite of antibiotic resistance still antibiotics consumption are found to increase on a higher scale of about 67% by 2030. Thus, the largest selling proposition of antibiotics makes it easily available for detection in sewage, wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments. Globally, 10% of antibiotics usage occurs from hospitals and 80% occurs from community usage.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89320366","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch6
M. M. Raja, Agilandeswari Devarajan
The water sources contaminated with the pharmaceutical pollutants flows into agricultural farmland, surface water, groundwater and drinking water. These waters are directed towards cultivation and it impacts the quality of the soil and the crops cultivated through this contaminated water (Tables 1 and 2). Pharmaceutical pollutants are considered as external factors from the environment that affect the quality of the crops . The ingestion of pharmaceuticals as pollutants into the plants is either through soil or air. The pathway that the pollutants enter the plant is from the soil, through their roots and transported to the stem. The other route through which the plants take up the pollutants is through air in which, the leaves are capable of absorbing the atmospheric pollutants . The pharmaceutical pollutants such as (beta)-lactams, aminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, sulfa drugs, herbicides including sulfonylurea, triazines, imidazolinone, phenylurea and bisphenol (BPA) are found to cause toxicity in plants. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) affect the plant growth, reproduction and crop productivity.
{"title":"Effect of Pharmaceuticals in Environment and Human Health","authors":"M. M. Raja, Agilandeswari Devarajan","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch6","url":null,"abstract":"The water sources contaminated with the pharmaceutical pollutants flows into agricultural farmland, surface water, groundwater and drinking water. These waters are directed towards cultivation and it impacts the quality of the soil and the crops cultivated through this contaminated water (Tables 1 and 2). Pharmaceutical pollutants are considered as external factors from the environment that affect the quality of the crops . The ingestion of pharmaceuticals as pollutants into the plants is either through soil or air. The pathway that the pollutants enter the plant is from the soil, through their roots and transported to the stem. The other route through which the plants take up the pollutants is through air in which, the leaves are capable of absorbing the atmospheric pollutants . The pharmaceutical pollutants such as (beta)-lactams, aminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, sulfa drugs, herbicides including sulfonylurea, triazines, imidazolinone, phenylurea and bisphenol (BPA) are found to cause toxicity in plants. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) affect the plant growth, reproduction and crop productivity.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83630880","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pharmaceutical synthetic drugs are predominant sources of therapeutic treatment around the globe and modern practice of medicine, medical treatment without these drugs is unimaginable. The increasing usage of prescribed pharmaceuticals estimates that, by end of 2020, the global need would reach 4500 billion doses. Some of the widely used drugs or active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are detected in various water resources and found to affect the quality of aquatic life species. These include the presence of antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, psychotropic including antidepressants, antiepileptic drugs, anxiolytic agents, cardiovascular drugs, antidiabetic agents, steroids, and their byproducts and metabolites. The presence of these pharmaceuticals is highly elicited in the aquatic environment due to its unchanged form of the drug being discharged, about 10% of carbamazepine (an antidepressant) is been detected in wastewater treatment plant. The physicochemical properties such as lower log Po/w could be one of the reasons for its bioaccumulation in the aquatic environment. The other factors that increase the pharmaceuticals as pollutants in the environment are its higher rate of consumption due to its wider availability and usage of over-the-counter drugs (antibiotics, anti-inflammatory etc.). The marine species affected due to these pharmaceuticals include cyanobacteria and blue- green algae by antibiotics ; plants, invertebrates, and fish affected with residues of diclofenac, ibuprofen (NSAIDs); green algae and zebra mussels affected with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used as antidepressants. Approximately 90% of marine vertebrates and invertebrates are detected with propranolol, cardiovascular agent; fish, crustaceans, snails, mussels, rotifers, aquatic plant, hydrae and algae contaminated with metformin, an antidiabetic agent and species of fish such as zebrafish, pipefish, seawater fish, sand gobies are detected with the presence of steroidal drugs. The concentration of pharmaceuticals in marine species ranges from a few ng/L to several (mu)g/L.
药物合成药物是全球治疗和现代医学实践的主要来源，没有这些药物的医疗是不可想象的。处方药使用量的增加估计，到2020年底，全球需求将达到4500亿剂。在各种水资源中检测到一些广泛使用的药物或活性药物成分(api)，并发现它们会影响水生生物物种的质量。这些因素包括抗生素、抗炎药、精神药物(包括抗抑郁药)、抗癫痫药、抗焦虑药、心血管药物、抗糖尿病药物、类固醇及其副产物和代谢物。这些药物的存在在水生环境中是高度诱导的，因为其排出的药物形式不变，约10% of carbamazepine (an antidepressant) is been detected in wastewater treatment plant. The physicochemical properties such as lower log Po/w could be one of the reasons for its bioaccumulation in the aquatic environment. The other factors that increase the pharmaceuticals as pollutants in the environment are its higher rate of consumption due to its wider availability and usage of over-the-counter drugs (antibiotics, anti-inflammatory etc.). The marine species affected due to these pharmaceuticals include cyanobacteria and blue- green algae by antibiotics ; plants, invertebrates, and fish affected with residues of diclofenac, ibuprofen (NSAIDs); green algae and zebra mussels affected with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used as antidepressants. Approximately 90% of marine vertebrates and invertebrates are detected with propranolol, cardiovascular agent; fish, crustaceans, snails, mussels, rotifers, aquatic plant, hydrae and algae contaminated with metformin, an antidiabetic agent and species of fish such as zebrafish, pipefish, seawater fish, sand gobies are detected with the presence of steroidal drugs. The concentration of pharmaceuticals in marine species ranges from a few ng/L to several (mu)g/L.
{"title":"Pharmaceuticals in Water System","authors":"Sundarrajan Thirugnanasambandam, Thirumal Margesan, Velmurugan Vadivel","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch3","url":null,"abstract":"Pharmaceutical synthetic drugs are predominant sources of therapeutic treatment around the globe and modern practice of medicine, medical treatment without these drugs is unimaginable. \u0000The increasing usage of prescribed pharmaceuticals estimates that, by end of 2020, the global need would reach 4500 billion doses. Some of the widely used drugs or active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are detected in various water resources and found to affect the quality of aquatic life species. These include the presence of antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, psychotropic including antidepressants, antiepileptic drugs, anxiolytic agents, cardiovascular drugs, antidiabetic agents, steroids, and their byproducts and metabolites. The presence of these pharmaceuticals is highly elicited in the aquatic environment due to its unchanged form of the drug being discharged, about 10% of carbamazepine (an antidepressant) is been detected in wastewater treatment plant. The physicochemical properties such as lower log Po/w could be one of the reasons for its bioaccumulation in the aquatic environment. The other factors that increase the pharmaceuticals as pollutants in the environment are its higher rate of consumption due to its wider availability and usage of over-the-counter drugs (antibiotics, anti-inflammatory etc.). The marine species affected due to these pharmaceuticals include cyanobacteria and blue- green algae by antibiotics ; plants, invertebrates, and fish affected with residues of diclofenac, ibuprofen (NSAIDs); green algae and zebra mussels affected with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used as antidepressants. Approximately 90% of marine vertebrates and invertebrates are detected with propranolol, cardiovascular agent; fish, crustaceans, snails, mussels, rotifers, aquatic plant, hydrae and algae contaminated with metformin, an antidiabetic agent and species of fish such as zebrafish, pipefish, seawater fish, sand gobies are detected with the presence of steroidal drugs. The concentration of pharmaceuticals in marine species ranges from a few ng/L to several (mu)g/L.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89886746","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch1
Agilandeswari Devarajan
The word "water" is derived from the older English word “waeter”, or proto-German “water” or German “Wasser”. All these words derived from various languages mean "wet." The word water basically refers the liquid state of the compound. Water exists in various forms. Water is termed as “ice” when it is in solid form, as “steam” when it is in the gas form. Super-critical fluid is formed by water under definite conditions. Hydrology can be defined as the studies related to the movement and the further distribution of the quantities of water above and/or below the surface of the earth. Water cycle or hydrologic cycle is the process of the form of water which continually changes and circulates between the oceans, atmosphere and land. The water of the earth circulates in three media like hydrosphere, atmosphere and the upper part of lithosphere. Water circulates from ocean to the atmosphere, then to lithosphere and finally from lithosphere to the ocean through a complex and interdependent processes which includes evaporation, transpiration, run off, ground water flow, precipitation etc. To have a simple understanding, water rises above the sea level reaching the surface of the earth in the form of vapour. Then clouds are formed from the water vapor which further falls on the earth’s ground as rain. Some amount of rain water gets penetrated into the ground while some other parts of rain water are joined to the moving water systems like streams and rivers.
{"title":"Hydrology: The Basics","authors":"Agilandeswari Devarajan","doi":"10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch1","url":null,"abstract":"The word \"water\" is derived from the older English word “waeter”, or proto-German “water” or German “Wasser”. All these words derived from various languages mean \"wet.\" The word water basically refers the liquid state of the compound. Water exists in various forms. Water is termed as “ice” when it is in solid form, as “steam” when it is in the gas form. Super-critical fluid is formed by water under definite conditions. Hydrology can be defined as the studies related to the movement and the further distribution of the quantities of water above and/or below the surface of the earth. \u0000Water cycle or hydrologic cycle is the process of the form of water which continually changes and circulates between the oceans, atmosphere and land. The water of the earth circulates in three media like hydrosphere, atmosphere and the upper part of lithosphere. Water circulates from ocean to the atmosphere, then to lithosphere and finally from lithosphere to the ocean through a complex and interdependent processes which includes evaporation, transpiration, run off, ground water flow, precipitation etc. To have a simple understanding, water rises above the sea level reaching the surface of the earth in the form of vapour. Then clouds are formed from the water vapor which further falls on the earth’s ground as rain. Some amount of rain water gets penetrated into the ground while some other parts of rain water are joined to the moving water systems like streams and rivers.","PeriodicalId":19835,"journal":{"name":"Pharmaceuticals in Water","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76532545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-30DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-91882-00-6/ch7
Ravi Manne, Agilandeswari Devarajan
The major pharmaceuticals concentrations present in the water system can be decreased through natural processes like biological degradation, solar photo degradation, adsorption drinking water or even during the wastewater treatment processes. In spite of their exclusive pharmacological properties, pharmaceuticals respond to treatment in a different way from other organic chemicals, with removal rates depending on their physicochemical properties and the respective treatment technology being used. Conventional water treatment processes like chlorination, can remove about 50% of these compounds, while more advanced treatment processes, namely ozonation, activated carbon, advanced oxidation, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration, are able to achieve higher removal rates. For example, reverse osmosis process has the ability to remove more than 99% of large pharmaceutical molecules. The most relevant approach to decrease the presence of pharmaceuticals in drinking-water and reduce human exposure is to avoid and/or decrease their entry into the water environment. This reduction could be attained through combined preventive measures which includes enhanced communication to the public on rational drug use and proper disposal of pharmaceuticals (for example, to avoid flushing of unused drugs down to the toilet), education for prescribers and systematic drug take-back programmes (awareness programmes). In line with the water safety plan, the principle aim is to control contaminants at the source. It would be appropriate to investigate the improvement in wastewater treatment for the removal of the pharmaceutical substance and other harmful contaminants of concern from their major path of entry into the water bodies.
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