Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0010
Paul A. Van Dyke
When we look at each of the individual chapters in this volume, it is often difficult to envision the importance of these private traders to the commerce as a whole. For the most part, their operations were miniscule compared to the large volumes of goods that each of the European East India companies purchased in China annually. The importance of the companies to the trade is much easier to qualify and quantify owing to the massive volumes of records that they left behind for us to examine. It is thus understandable that those enterprises have commanded most of the attention of scholars in the past; their work now constitutes many dozens of publications. It was, in fact, necessary for those studies to be done first, before we could begin to understand the roles that private investors played in the trade....
{"title":"Conclusion","authors":"Paul A. Van Dyke","doi":"10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"When we look at each of the individual chapters in this volume, it is often difficult to envision the importance of these private traders to the commerce as a whole. For the most part, their operations were miniscule compared to the large volumes of goods that each of the European East India companies purchased in China annually. The importance of the companies to the trade is much easier to qualify and quantify owing to the massive volumes of records that they left behind for us to examine. It is thus understandable that those enterprises have commanded most of the attention of scholars in the past; their work now constitutes many dozens of publications. It was, in fact, necessary for those studies to be done first, before we could begin to understand the roles that private investors played in the trade....","PeriodicalId":277321,"journal":{"name":"The Private Side of the Canton Trade, 1700-1840","volume":"2015 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125895164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0007
J. Goldstein
American trader Nathan Dunn’s experience as a private China trader shows that one individual can indeed make a difference. A practicing Quaker who refused to buy or sell opium, Dunn pioneered innovative trading strategies while championing a mercantile code that was unusual for his day. At a time when few Americans regarded the opium trade as inappropriate, he showed that it was possible to succeed in the Canton Trade without dealing in opium. Dunn was also a dedicated educator of Chinese culture. He seems to have found his life’s purpose in bringing an understanding of China to English-speaking audiences. Unlike virtually all of his contemporaries except for Robert Waln Jr., his aim was not to trade and get wealthy purely for the sake of personal aggrandizement. Rather, it was to become a self-educated, self-proclaimed advocate for China in the United States and later in the United Kingdom. The wealth that he gained through trade provided funds needed to realize his higher calling. In addition, he was arguably the pioneer of Sinological museology and ethnology in both the United States and Europe. Because of the earnestness and thoroughness of his quest, he elevated both sciences beyond the level of randomly collecting ‘cabinets of curiosities’. Shortly after he established a ‘Chinese Museum’ in Philadelphia in 1838, several other similar museums appeared in America and England, although none were as focussed and all-encompassing or as positively inclined as his.
{"title":"Nathan Dunn (1782–1844) as Anti-Opium China Trader and Sino-Western Cultural Intermediary","authors":"J. Goldstein","doi":"10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"American trader Nathan Dunn’s experience as a private China trader shows that one individual can indeed make a difference. A practicing Quaker who refused to buy or sell opium, Dunn pioneered innovative trading strategies while championing a mercantile code that was unusual for his day. At a time when few Americans regarded the opium trade as inappropriate, he showed that it was possible to succeed in the Canton Trade without dealing in opium. Dunn was also a dedicated educator of Chinese culture. He seems to have found his life’s purpose in bringing an understanding of China to English-speaking audiences. Unlike virtually all of his contemporaries except for Robert Waln Jr., his aim was not to trade and get wealthy purely for the sake of personal aggrandizement. Rather, it was to become a self-educated, self-proclaimed advocate for China in the United States and later in the United Kingdom. The wealth that he gained through trade provided funds needed to realize his higher calling. In addition, he was arguably the pioneer of Sinological museology and ethnology in both the United States and Europe. Because of the earnestness and thoroughness of his quest, he elevated both sciences beyond the level of randomly collecting ‘cabinets of curiosities’. Shortly after he established a ‘Chinese Museum’ in Philadelphia in 1838, several other similar museums appeared in America and England, although none were as focussed and all-encompassing or as positively inclined as his.","PeriodicalId":277321,"journal":{"name":"The Private Side of the Canton Trade, 1700-1840","volume":"68 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115030685","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0006
J. Wills
Private memoirs are among the most descriptive documents we have of individual experiences in Canton. While subjective in nature, these European eyewitness accounts offer a diversity of views and of information regarding Canton. The five individuals considered in this chapter—Robert Pitt and William Hickey, Pehr Osbeck and Pierre Poivre, and Charles de Constant—provide glimpses of the Canton Trade that are generally not found in more official records. They represent a diversity of backgrounds: two hard-living young Englishmen, two plant-collectors, one a Lutheran chaplain and the other a failed priest, and a French-Swiss of good family encountering the worst times in Canton. Their observations contribute to the larger picture of the trade, and they remind us of the variety of visions that make up the human condition, whether at home or far away. Finding additional eyewitness reports could considerably enrich our understanding of the trade and expand our interpretations of the importance of that trade. For example, from botanizing as a hobby to the great efforts to grow tea in India, we can link eighteenth-century ‘natural history’ to the new nineteenth-century phases of plantation agriculture in ways that could be of world-historical importance. Also valuable would be more mention of merchants of Middle Eastern and Indian origin doing business at Canton, especially if figures could be found on their trade.
{"title":"The Private Eye in Old Canton","authors":"J. Wills","doi":"10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"Private memoirs are among the most descriptive documents we have of individual experiences in Canton. While subjective in nature, these European eyewitness accounts offer a diversity of views and of information regarding Canton. The five individuals considered in this chapter—Robert Pitt and William Hickey, Pehr Osbeck and Pierre Poivre, and Charles de Constant—provide glimpses of the Canton Trade that are generally not found in more official records. They represent a diversity of backgrounds: two hard-living young Englishmen, two plant-collectors, one a Lutheran chaplain and the other a failed priest, and a French-Swiss of good family encountering the worst times in Canton. Their observations contribute to the larger picture of the trade, and they remind us of the variety of visions that make up the human condition, whether at home or far away. Finding additional eyewitness reports could considerably enrich our understanding of the trade and expand our interpretations of the importance of that trade. For example, from botanizing as a hobby to the great efforts to grow tea in India, we can link eighteenth-century ‘natural history’ to the new nineteenth-century phases of plantation agriculture in ways that could be of world-historical importance. Also valuable would be more mention of merchants of Middle Eastern and Indian origin doing business at Canton, especially if figures could be found on their trade.","PeriodicalId":277321,"journal":{"name":"The Private Side of the Canton Trade, 1700-1840","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124926624","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0002
J. Hanser
During the eighteenth century, China was by no means part of the emerging British empire, formal or informal, but it was on the borderlands of that empire. Within a rapidly changing commercial and political context, British private traders, investors in India and their agents in China created new connections between the subcontinent and the southeast coast of China. In this new commercial system, British private traders reigned supreme. But this revolution was not merely commercial. Rather, a new, predominantly British financial system linking India and China was forged, which ran parallel to other existing networks of Indian-based commission merchants such as those of the Portuguese, Muslims, Armenians, and later, Parsees. However, with these new financial connections came political entanglements. Investors in India and their British agents in China used the coercive power of the British state (without its permission or knowledge) and their own private Indian militia to enforce their contracts with Chinese merchants. Before the rise of aggressive agency houses such as Jardine, Matheson & Company, and the expansion of the nineteenth-century opium trade, eighteenth-century British private traders in search of personal gain drew China into the financial and political orbit of Britain’s burgeoning Asian empire.
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Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0004
Susan E. Schopp
Private trade played a legitimate and important role in Sino-French trade at the very start, as members of the private sector to whom the Compagnie des Indes (French East India Company) leased its monopoly on a limited basis were responsible for carrying out the first two decades of France’s trade with China (1698-1719). Leasing ceased under the second Compagnie (1719-1769); during this era, private trade took the form of the port-permis (‘privilege trade’) and non-Europe (‘country’) trade.When the second Compagnie’s monopoly was suspended in 1769, a period of wholly private trade followed, marking the first time that a nation possessing an East India company abolished that company’s monopoly and opened commerce with China and elsewhere to the private sector. The large number of merchant voyages from France to Canton during this fifteen-year period (1770–1785) shows that private traders were well capable of taking advantage of the new opportunities that were offered. Although a third Compagnie was created in 1785, its abolition eight years later (1793) opened the door for all subsequent Sino-French trade to be conducted by persons in the private sector. Profiles of François and Edmond Rothe, Mr. Thimothée, Gilles Sebire, Julien Bourgogne, François Terrien, and Charles de Constant provide examples of the varied experiences of private traders; three of these individuals earlier served as Compagnie employees.
私营贸易一开始就在中法贸易中发挥了合法而重要的作用，法国东印度公司(Compagnie des Indes)在有限的基础上向私营部门的成员出租了垄断权，负责执行法国与中国的前二十年贸易(1698-1719)。第二公司(1719-1769)停止了租赁;在这一时期，私人贸易采取了港口许可证(“特权贸易”)和非欧洲(“国家”)贸易的形式。1769年，第二家公司的垄断地位被取消，随后进入了一段完全私营的贸易时期，这标志着拥有东印度公司的国家首次废除了该公司的垄断地位，并向私营部门开放了与中国和其他地方的贸易。在这十五年间(1770-1785)从法国到广州的大量商业航行表明，私人商人很好地利用了提供的新机会。尽管第三家公司于1785年成立，但它在八年后(1793年)被废除，为随后的所有中法贸易打开了大门，由私营部门的人进行。弗朗索瓦和埃德蒙·罗特、西莫萨梅先生、吉尔斯·塞比亚、于连·勃艮第、弗朗索瓦·特里恩和查尔斯·德·康斯坦等人的简介提供了私营商人不同经历的例子;其中三人之前曾是Compagnie员工。
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Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0009
Thomas H. Cox
Warren Delano represents a typical trader who needed more than moral integrity to keep him away from the opium trade. Arriving in Canton for the first time in 1834, Delano was lured to China by a commercial culture that unofficially tolerated opium smuggling. The openness of Canton in carrying out trade also proved to be its weakness, because before 1836, it was relatively easy to become involved in contraband. With substantial profits to be made and little risk of getting caught, employees of Russell and Company, as well as numerous others, had no reservations about participating in the trade. The change in Chinese and American attitudes toward the opium trade during the First Opium War forced Delano both to transform the ways in which he did business and to relocate his enterprises to Macao in the early 1840s. He also learned over time to pursue a career that combined ambition with personal connections and the ability to navigate amongst informal kinship- and friendship-based networks. Delano returned to the United States to live in 1846, but after years of financial success, was ruined by the Panic of 1857. He returned to China in 1860 and amassed a new fortune through trading tea, porcelain, and, at times, opium. In 1866, having made a second fortune, he returned permanently to the United States.
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Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789888390939.003.0008
Lisa Hellman
Swedish East India Company and private trader Michael Grubb lived between groups and norms at a time of historical change. He arrived in Canton before the golden age of the Company as a whole (which was the end of the 1770s), but experienced the time when the largest private fortunes were made. He also arrived before the Swedish company had completely established the strict division between company and private trade, but when most trade restrictions were already in place. He was an opium trader before opium dominated the trade, and he also worked as a go-between for different trade groups; this was a role made possible by the considerable freedom that Swedish supercargoes had to conduct private trade, despite tension between private and company interests. Men like Grubb and his Swedish compatriot Jean Abraham Grill also demonstrate the importance of social relations in multinational involvement, and how those relations could both shape the Canton Trade and be shaped by it. In addition, Grubb’s relationship with Macao resident Isabel Jackson provides insight into traders’ relationships with local women. Finally, Grubb’s and Grill’s lives also illustrate the widely varying fates of China traders after their return to their homeland. While Grill invested wisely after returning to Sweden, Grubb squandered his fortune in high-risk business ventures and spent his last years in poverty.
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Pub Date : 2018-07-01DOI: 10.5790/HONGKONG/9789888390939.003.0005
Maria Kar-wing Mok
Most of the traders in the foreign community at Canton were capable businessmen and tough negotiators with specific and precise demands, and consequently not easy to please. But even in this environment, many of them greatly enjoyed the local shopping experience and held both the service and the products provided in high regard. The shopping alleys in the area of the factories and the streets on the periphery made the southwestern suburb of Canton where they were located one of the greatest shopping centres in Asia. The shops offered a staggering selection of Chinese goods that were made exclusively for a western clientele and were available only in Canton. In addition, they were a model of efficiency. The shopkeepers, recognizing the value of awe-inspiring displays, competitive pricing, fine craftsmanship, and customer service, employed marketing strategies that dazzled the western traders. Shops were often a combination of a shop and a workshop, and a number of them offered visitors behind-the-scene demonstrations of the production process. Such tours were more than entertainment; they were undoubtedly given to entice customers to make purchases. While negative reports of the shopping experience exist, they were the exception rather than the rule. The many accounts that exist, regardless of the nationality of the writer, present a very positive view of traders’ shopping experience in China and show a high regard for Cantonese shopkeepers.
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