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The Oxford Handbook of the Psychology of Competition最新文献

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Neuroscience and Competitive Behavior 神经科学与竞争行为
Pub Date : 2022-02-14 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190060800.013.27
M. Balconi, L. Angioletti
Cognitive and social neuroscience may provide a wide range of neuroscientific tools and paradigms for the research on competitive behavior. Specifically, hyperscanning is a relatively new paradigm in neuroscience that involves capturing the brain activity of two or more participants engaged in a joint task, such as a competitive game, simultaneously. A brief overview of hyperscanning studies on competition and the intra-brain and inter-brain functional connectivity analysis have been here described. Taking inspiration from previous hyperscanning protocols, this chapter suggests that the neuroscientific study of competitive behavior could also be fruitfully explored in other real-life contexts, such as the educational field, the peer group, the sports field, and the organizational context.
认知和社会神经科学可以为竞争行为的研究提供广泛的神经科学工具和范式。具体来说,超扫描是神经科学中一个相对较新的范例,它涉及捕捉两个或更多参与者同时参与联合任务(如竞争性游戏)的大脑活动。本文简要概述了关于竞争的超扫描研究以及脑内和脑间功能连通性分析。从先前的超扫描协议中获得灵感,本章提出竞争行为的神经科学研究也可以在其他现实生活环境中进行富有成效的探索,如教育领域、同伴群体、体育领域和组织环境。
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引用次数: 1
The Evolution of Competition 竞争的演变
Pub Date : 2021-11-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190060800.013.6
Benjamin M. Winegard, David Geary
Human competition is, at least partially, responsible for some of the transcended achievements of the species (walking on the moon, the polio vaccine, etc.), but the forces unleashed by competition have also led to profound human suffering (warfare, domination of one group by another group, etc.). In this article, the authors approach competition from an evolutionary perspective, applying Darwin’s theories of natural and sexual selection to understand better the nature of human competition. From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, humans engage in competition to gain resources, including status, food, and mating opportunities. Males tend to engage in more overt and aggressive forms of competition than females, but both sexes desire access to material and cultural goods associated with reproductive fitness. In the last roughly seventy years, the nature of men’s competition has transformed dramatically leading to declines in both within and between-group violence. As developed societies have succeeded in suppressing more overt and destructive forms of male–male competition, men attempt to gain status through occupational success, cognitive sophistication, moral signaling, and other relatively nonviolent behaviors. In this sense, men’s and women’s competition is more similar than it was a century ago. However, women’s competition is still less visible and relies on more indirect mechanisms (e.g., spreading gossip, subtle use of body language). For this reason, female–female competition has attracted less study than male–male competition. Fortunately, in the last decade, psychologists have partially redressed this imbalance.
人类的竞争至少在一定程度上导致了人类取得的一些卓越成就(如在月球上行走、小儿麻痹症疫苗等),但竞争释放的力量也给人类带来了深刻的痛苦(战争、一个群体对另一个群体的统治等)。在这篇文章中,作者从进化的角度来看待竞争,运用达尔文的自然选择和性选择理论来更好地理解人类竞争的本质。从进化心理学的角度来看,人类参与竞争是为了获得资源,包括地位、食物和交配机会。男性倾向于参与比女性更公开、更激进的竞争形式,但两性都渴望获得与生殖健康相关的物质和文化产品。在过去的大约七十年里,男性竞争的性质发生了巨大的变化,导致群体内部和群体之间的暴力行为都有所减少。随着发达社会成功地压制了更多公开和破坏性的男性竞争形式,男性试图通过职业成功、认知成熟、道德信号和其他相对非暴力的行为来获得地位。从这个意义上说,男子和女子的比赛比一个世纪前更相似。然而,女性的竞争仍然不那么明显,而是依赖于更间接的机制(例如,传播八卦,微妙的肢体语言使用)。因此,女性之间的竞争比男性之间的竞争吸引了更少的研究。幸运的是,在过去的十年里,心理学家已经部分地纠正了这种不平衡。
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引用次数: 0
Gender Differences in the Psychology of Competition 竞争心理中的性别差异
Pub Date : 2021-10-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190060800.013.22
Kathrin J. Hanek
Drawing primarily on the literature in experimental economics and social psychology, this article reviews key findings on gender differences for two aspects of competitiveness and competition: entry preferences and performance. Although women, relative to men, have been shown to shy away from competition and underperform in competitive environments, this article also discusses boundary conditions for these effects, such as the nature of the task or gender composition of the group, and highlights manifestations of these effects in applied domains, including in negotiations, the labor market, educational settings, and sports. Adopting social psychological frameworks of prescriptive norms and stereotypes, particularly social role theory, this article examines ways in which gender-incongruencies may underpin gender gaps in competition and gender-congruencies may alleviate them. Finally, this article considers implications for individuals and institutions as well as future directions in the field to continue finding ways to close gaps.
本文主要借鉴实验经济学和社会心理学的文献,回顾了竞争力和竞争两个方面的性别差异的主要发现:进入偏好和表现。尽管与男性相比,女性已经被证明回避竞争,在竞争环境中表现不佳,但本文还讨论了这些影响的边界条件,例如任务的性质或群体的性别构成,并强调了这些影响在应用领域的表现,包括谈判、劳动力市场、教育环境和体育。本文采用规范性规范和刻板印象的社会心理学框架,特别是社会角色理论,探讨了性别不一致可能在竞争中巩固性别差距的方式,以及性别一致可能缓解这种差距的方式。最后,本文考虑了对个人和机构的影响,以及该领域未来的发展方向,以继续寻找缩小差距的方法。
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引用次数: 0
Social Identity and Intergroup Competition 社会认同与群体间竞争
Pub Date : 2021-10-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190060800.013.20
S. Belavadi, M. Hogg
This chapter adopts a social identity approach to explain the nature of competition between groups. The role of the self is central in social identity theory. The ways in which the drive to attain a positive sense of self through identification with groups motivates competitive intergroup behavior forms the core of this chapter. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of realistic conflict theory and discusses the role of independent versus interdependent goals between groups in driving competitive versus cooperative intergroup behavior. Social identity theory is then invoked in the remainder of the chapter to discuss how competition between groups is sparked by the need for a clear, distinctive, and positive identity among group members through competition over status with the outgroup. The ways in which intergroup competition is viewed as adaptive by groups in crystalizing group boundaries and negotiating intergroup status and prestige is highlighted. A clearly defined social identity is also essential to group members in the management of self-uncertainty—a primary motive for social identification. The chapter ends with a discussion of contexts in which group members’ self-uncertainty is provoked and heightened such that they seek groups with rigidly defined ideologies wherein competitive relations spiral into radical, even violent behavior toward the outgroup and support for ingroup leaders who are authoritarian.
本章采用社会认同的方法来解释群体之间竞争的本质。自我的角色是社会认同理论的核心。通过群体认同获得积极自我意识的驱动力激发了群体间竞争行为的方式构成了本章的核心。本章首先简要讨论了现实冲突理论,并讨论了群体之间的独立目标与相互依赖目标在推动竞争与合作群体间行为中的作用。然后,本章的其余部分引用社会认同理论来讨论群体之间的竞争是如何由群体成员之间通过与外群体的地位竞争而需要明确、独特和积极的身份而引发的。强调了群体间竞争被群体视为在明确群体边界和协商群体间地位和声望方面具有适应性的方式。明确定义的社会身份对群体成员管理自我不确定性也至关重要——这是社会认同的主要动机。本章最后讨论了群体成员的自我不确定性被激发和加剧的背景,这样他们就会寻求具有严格定义的意识形态的群体,在这种意识形态中,竞争关系演变为对外部群体的激进甚至暴力行为,并支持专制的内部群体领导者。
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引用次数: 0
Intrinsic Motivation, Psychological Needs, and Competition 内在动机、心理需求和竞争
Pub Date : 2021-10-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190060800.013.10
R. Ryan, J. Reeve
Competition is an apt place to experience intrinsic motivation, as competitive settings are often rich with optimal challenges and immediate, effectance-relevant feedback. Yet competition can also undermine intrinsic motivation and sustained engagement by introducing controlling pressures and negative feedback. To explain the contrasting effects of competitive settings on intrinsic motivation, this chapter presents a self-determination theory analysis. According to the theory, when elements of competitive settings are experienced as controlling or pressuring, they undermine competitors’ autonomy, decreasing intrinsic motivation. However, when these elements are perceived as both non-controlling and competence-informing, they can satisfy both autonomy and competence needs, enhancing intrinsic motivation. Unpacking these motivational crosscurrents, the authors identify the motivational implications of different elements of competition, including competitive set, pressure to win, feedback and competitive outcomes, challenge, leaders’ motivating styles, team interpersonal climate, and intrapersonal events such as ego-involvement. The authors also examine both positive and negative effects of competition on the need for relatedness. The chapter concludes by discussing how conditions that foster the need-satisfying aspects of competition not only enhance intrinsic motivation but also help prevent the emergence of competition’s darker sides, such as cheating, doping, objectifying opponents, aggression, and poor sportspersonship.
竞争是一个适合体验内在动机的地方,因为竞争环境通常充满了最佳挑战和即时的、与效果相关的反馈。然而,竞争也会通过引入控制性压力和负面反馈来破坏内在动机和持续参与。为了解释竞争环境对内在动机的不同影响,本章进行了自我决定理论分析。根据该理论,当竞争环境的元素被体验为控制或压力时,它们破坏了竞争对手的自主性,降低了内在动机。然而,当这些要素被视为既非控制性又具有能力告知性时,它们可以同时满足自主性和能力需求,从而增强内在动机。通过分析这些动机的交叉流,作者确定了不同竞争因素的动机含义,包括竞争环境、获胜压力、反馈和竞争结果、挑战、领导者的激励风格、团队人际关系氛围以及自我参与等个人事件。作者还研究了竞争对亲缘关系需求的积极和消极影响。本章最后讨论了促进竞争需求满足方面的条件如何不仅增强了内在动机,还有助于防止竞争黑暗面的出现,如作弊、兴奋剂、将对手物化、攻击性和糟糕的运动员精神。
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引用次数: 1
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The Oxford Handbook of the Psychology of Competition
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