Jeremiah A. Bernau, Brenda Bowen, J. Lerback, Evan Kipnis
Over the past century, the Bonneville Salt Flats, which lies on the western edge of the Great Salt Lake watershed, has experienced changing environmental conditions and a unique history of land use, including resource extraction and recreation. The perennial halite salt crust has decreased in thickness since at least 1960. An experimental restoration project to return mined solutes began in 1997, but it has not resulted in anticipated salt crust growth. Here, primary observations of the Bonneville Salt Flats surface and subsurface brine chemistry and water levels collected from 2013 to 2023 are reported. Spatial and temporal patterns in chemistry, focused on density and water stable isotopes, are evaluated and compared with observations across seven periods of research spanning from 1925 to 2023. Declining salinity in the areas to the east of extraction ditches and south of Interstate 80 were observed. Brine extracted for potash production decreased in salinity as extraction rates increased. Between the years 1964 and 1997, the salinity of the shallow aquifer brine located beneath and to the east of the crust experienced a decrease. However, following this period, the salinity stabilized and subsequently increased. Salinity recovery was concurrent with declines in brine extraction and the salt restoration project, with the largest decrease in brine extraction being concurrent with the largest recovery in salinity. The specific impact of the restoration project on the brine salinity increase remains unclear. To the west, the shallow aquifer in the area between the Silver Island Mountains and the salt crust has increased in salinity. This increase is accompanied by a decline in groundwater levels, which enables the underground movement of solutes from east to west, following a salinity gradient away from the saline pan. Over the past 25 years, the alluvial-fan aquifer along the Silver Island Mountains has markedly declined, leading to increasingly more saline and isotopically heavier basinal waters to be extracted for industrial use. This change is concurrent with the onset of the salt restoration project, which relies on alluvial-fan aquifer waters. This compilation of changes in groundwater chemistry provides an important resource for stakeholders working to understand and manage this dynamic and ephemeral evaporite system. It also offers an example of decadal-scale change in a highly managed Great Salt Lake watershed saline system.
{"title":"Observations of Decadal-Scale Brine Geochemical Change at the Bonneville Salt Flats","authors":"Jeremiah A. Bernau, Brenda Bowen, J. Lerback, Evan Kipnis","doi":"10.31711/ugap.v51i.143","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31711/ugap.v51i.143","url":null,"abstract":"Over the past century, the Bonneville Salt Flats, which lies on the western edge of the Great Salt Lake watershed, has experienced changing environmental conditions and a unique history of land use, including resource extraction and recreation. The perennial halite salt crust has decreased in thickness since at least 1960. An experimental restoration project to return mined solutes began in 1997, but it has not resulted in anticipated salt crust growth. Here, primary observations of the Bonneville Salt Flats surface and subsurface brine chemistry and water levels collected from 2013 to 2023 are reported. Spatial and temporal patterns in chemistry, focused on density and water stable isotopes, are evaluated and compared with observations across seven periods of research spanning from 1925 to 2023. Declining salinity in the areas to the east of extraction ditches and south of Interstate 80 were observed. Brine extracted for potash production decreased in salinity as extraction rates increased. Between the years 1964 and 1997, the salinity of the shallow aquifer brine located beneath and to the east of the crust experienced a decrease. However, following this period, the salinity stabilized and subsequently increased. Salinity recovery was concurrent with declines in brine extraction and the salt restoration project, with the largest decrease in brine extraction being concurrent with the largest recovery in salinity. The specific impact of the restoration project on the brine salinity increase remains unclear. To the west, the shallow aquifer in the area between the Silver Island Mountains and the salt crust has increased in salinity. This increase is accompanied by a decline in groundwater levels, which enables the underground movement of solutes from east to west, following a salinity gradient away from the saline pan. Over the past 25 years, the alluvial-fan aquifer along the Silver Island Mountains has markedly declined, leading to increasingly more saline and isotopically heavier basinal waters to be extracted for industrial use. This change is concurrent with the onset of the salt restoration project, which relies on alluvial-fan aquifer waters. This compilation of changes in groundwater chemistry provides an important resource for stakeholders working to understand and manage this dynamic and ephemeral evaporite system. It also offers an example of decadal-scale change in a highly managed Great Salt Lake watershed saline system.","PeriodicalId":518577,"journal":{"name":"Geosites","volume":"39 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140531874","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The Great Salt Lake-Bonneville basin has contained lakes for many millions of years and has been hydrographically closed for most of its history. Lakes in the lacustrine system have ranged from saline to fresh, and from shallow to deep. Tectonics, specifically crustal extension, which began roughly 20 million years ago as part of the formation of the Basin and Range Province, is the cause of lake-basin formation. Much of the rock record of lakes from Miocene time is faulted and has been eroded and/or buried. Pliocene and Quaternary lakes are better known. For much of the past ~5 Ma the basin has probably appeared similar to today, with a shallow saline terminal lake in a dry desert surrounded by mountains. Freshwater marshes and fluvial systems existed on the basin floor during part of the past ~5 Ma, probably were caused by the lack of inflow from the upper Bear River during the Neogene Period and most of the Pleistocene Epoch (that river was diverted into the basin during the Late Pleistocene), combined with a warm and dry climate. The largest deep-lake cycles were caused by changes to a cold and wet climate, which affected the water budget of the lake system and were correlated with periods of global glaciation. Based on limited data, the total length of time deep lakes existed in the basin is thought to be less than 10% of the past ~773 ka. Lake Bonneville, the most-recent of the deep-lake cycles, was probably the deepest and largest manifestation of the lake system in the history of the basin. Named deep-lake cycles during the past ~773 ka, are Lava Creek (~620 ka), Pokes Point (~430 ka), Little Valley (~150 ka), Cutler Dam (~60 ka), and Bonneville (~30 -13 ka). Of the Quaternary deep-lake cycles, only Lake Bonneville is represented by lacustrine landforms, outcrops, and cores of offshore deposits; no landforms from older deep-lake cycles exist (some may be buried under Lake Bonneville deposits but are not visible at the surface), and pre-Bonneville lakes are represented by sediments in limited outcrops and drill holes (including a set of cores taken by A.J. Eardley in the mid 20th century). During the past ~773 ka, deep-lake cycles were correlated with changes in the total volume of global glacial ice; the available evidence indicates that prior to ~773 ka deep-lake cycles were rare.
数百万年来，大盐湖-邦纳维尔盆地内一直有湖泊存在，在其历史上的大部分时间里，湖泊在水文上是封闭的。湖沼系统中的湖泊从咸水湖到淡水湖，从浅水湖到深水湖。构造，特别是地壳延伸是湖盆形成的原因，地壳延伸始于大约 2000 万年前，是盆地和山脉省形成的一部分。中新世时期的大部分湖泊岩石记录都被断层侵蚀和/或掩埋。上新世和第四纪的湖泊更为人们所熟知。在过去约 5 Ma 的大部分时间里，盆地的面貌可能与今天相似，在群山环绕的干旱沙漠中形成了一个浅盐湖。在过去约 5 Ma 的部分时间里，盆地底部存在淡水沼泽和河流系统，这可能是由于在新近纪和更新世的大部分时间里（该河流在更新世晚期改道进入盆地），熊河上游缺乏流入，再加上气候温暖干燥造成的。最大的深湖周期是由寒冷和潮湿气候的变化引起的，这影响了湖泊系统的水量预算，并与全球冰川时期相关。根据有限的数据，在过去约 773 ka 年中，盆地中深湖存在的总时间被认为不到 10%。博纳维尔湖（Lake Bonneville）是最晚的深湖周期，可能是盆地历史上最深、最大的湖泊系统。在过去 ~773 ka 年期间命名的深湖周期有熔岩溪（~620 ka）、波克斯岬（~430 ka）、小山谷（~150 ka）、卡特勒坝（~60 ka）和博纳维尔（~30 -13 ka）。在第四纪深湖周期中，只有博纳维尔湖有湖沼地貌、露头和近海沉积物岩芯；没有更早的深湖周期的地貌（有些地貌可能埋藏在博纳维尔湖沉积物下，但在地表看不到），博纳维尔湖之前的湖泊只有有限的露头和钻孔中的沉积物（包括 A.J. Eardley 在 20 世纪中期采集的一组岩芯）。在过去约 773 ka 年期间，深湖周期与全球冰川冰总量的变化相关；现有证据表明，在约 773 ka 年之前，深湖周期是罕见的。
{"title":"Late Neogene and Quaternary Lacustrine History of the Great Salt Lake-Bonneville Basin","authors":"C. Oviatt","doi":"10.31711/ugap.v51i.133","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31711/ugap.v51i.133","url":null,"abstract":"The Great Salt Lake-Bonneville basin has contained lakes for many millions of years and has been hydrographically closed for most of its history. Lakes in the lacustrine system have ranged from saline to fresh, and from shallow to deep. Tectonics, specifically crustal extension, which began roughly 20 million years ago as part of the formation of the Basin and Range Province, is the cause of lake-basin formation. Much of the rock record of lakes from Miocene time is faulted and has been eroded and/or buried. Pliocene and Quaternary lakes are better known. For much of the past ~5 Ma the basin has probably appeared similar to today, with a shallow saline terminal lake in a dry desert surrounded by mountains. Freshwater marshes and fluvial systems existed on the basin floor during part of the past ~5 Ma, probably were caused by the lack of inflow from the upper Bear River during the Neogene Period and most of the Pleistocene Epoch (that river was diverted into the basin during the Late Pleistocene), combined with a warm and dry climate. The largest deep-lake cycles were caused by changes to a cold and wet climate, which affected the water budget of the lake system and were correlated with periods of global glaciation. Based on limited data, the total length of time deep lakes existed in the basin is thought to be less than 10% of the past ~773 ka. Lake Bonneville, the most-recent of the deep-lake cycles, was probably the deepest and largest manifestation of the lake system in the history of the basin. Named deep-lake cycles during the past ~773 ka, are Lava Creek (~620 ka), Pokes Point (~430 ka), Little Valley (~150 ka), Cutler Dam (~60 ka), and Bonneville (~30 -13 ka). Of the Quaternary deep-lake cycles, only Lake Bonneville is represented by lacustrine landforms, outcrops, and cores of offshore deposits; no landforms from older deep-lake cycles exist (some may be buried under Lake Bonneville deposits but are not visible at the surface), and pre-Bonneville lakes are represented by sediments in limited outcrops and drill holes (including a set of cores taken by A.J. Eardley in the mid 20th century). During the past ~773 ka, deep-lake cycles were correlated with changes in the total volume of global glacial ice; the available evidence indicates that prior to ~773 ka deep-lake cycles were rare.","PeriodicalId":518577,"journal":{"name":"Geosites","volume":"42 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140531873","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Olivia P. Paradis, Frank Corsetti, A. Bardsley, Douglas Hammond, Will Berelson, Xiaomei Xu, Jennifer Walker, Aaron Celestian
Ooids (calcium carbonate coated grains) are common in carbonate environments throughout geologic time, but the mechanism by which they form remains unclear. In particular, the rate of ooid growth remains elusive in all but a few modern marine environments. In order to investigate the rate of ooid growth in a non-marine setting, we used 14C to date ooids from Great Salt Lake, Utah, a well-known site of aragonitic ooids. Bulk ooids obtained from the northern shore of Antelope Island and the northeast shore of Great Salt Lake near Spiral Jetty were sieved into different size fractions and produced mean ages ranging between 2728±15 and 4373±20 14C yr BP. Larger ooids were older than smaller ooids, implying that larger ooids grew in the environment for a longer duration, with the caveat that bulk age dating integrates the growth history of an ooid. To better resolve growth history, ooids from the coarse fraction were sequentially dissolved, and 14C ages were obtained for each dissolution step to create a time series of ooid growth. The results of the sequential dating indicate that the coarse Great Salt Lake ooid growth began between 5800-6600 ± 60 14C yr BP while their outer cortices are nearly modern. Sequentially dated ooids from the South Arm of Great Salt Lake at Antelope Island record a nearly linear growth history (~ 10-15 µm/kyr), whereas ooids from Spiral Jetty record somewhat faster growth between ~6000 and 4000 years ago (0.03 – 0.06 µm/yr) followed by a 10x slower growth history for the remainder of their lifespan (0.003 – 0.008 µm/yr). The lifespan of Great Salt Lake aragonitic ooids is two to six times longer than those from modern marine environments, and thus provides a unique end member for understanding the mechanisms behind ooid formation. The ooid age range indicates that geochemical parameters measured from bulk ooid dissolution integrates over ~6000 years and thus does not represent a geochemical snapshot in time, as some previous studies have suggested.
{"title":"Radiocarbon Chronology/Growth Rates of Ooids from Great Salt Lake, Utah","authors":"Olivia P. Paradis, Frank Corsetti, A. Bardsley, Douglas Hammond, Will Berelson, Xiaomei Xu, Jennifer Walker, Aaron Celestian","doi":"10.31711/ugap.v51i.137","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31711/ugap.v51i.137","url":null,"abstract":"Ooids (calcium carbonate coated grains) are common in carbonate environments throughout geologic time, but the mechanism by which they form remains unclear. In particular, the rate of ooid growth remains elusive in all but a few modern marine environments. In order to investigate the rate of ooid growth in a non-marine setting, we used 14C to date ooids from Great Salt Lake, Utah, a well-known site of aragonitic ooids. Bulk ooids obtained from the northern shore of Antelope Island and the northeast shore of Great Salt Lake near Spiral Jetty were sieved into different size fractions and produced mean ages ranging between 2728±15 and 4373±20 14C yr BP. Larger ooids were older than smaller ooids, implying that larger ooids grew in the environment for a longer duration, with the caveat that bulk age dating integrates the growth history of an ooid. To better resolve growth history, ooids from the coarse fraction were sequentially dissolved, and 14C ages were obtained for each dissolution step to create a time series of ooid growth. The results of the sequential dating indicate that the coarse Great Salt Lake ooid growth began between 5800-6600 ± 60 14C yr BP while their outer cortices are nearly modern. Sequentially dated ooids from the South Arm of Great Salt Lake at Antelope Island record a nearly linear growth history (~ 10-15 µm/kyr), whereas ooids from Spiral Jetty record somewhat faster growth between ~6000 and 4000 years ago (0.03 – 0.06 µm/yr) followed by a 10x slower growth history for the remainder of their lifespan (0.003 – 0.008 µm/yr). The lifespan of Great Salt Lake aragonitic ooids is two to six times longer than those from modern marine environments, and thus provides a unique end member for understanding the mechanisms behind ooid formation. The ooid age range indicates that geochemical parameters measured from bulk ooid dissolution integrates over ~6000 years and thus does not represent a geochemical snapshot in time, as some previous studies have suggested.","PeriodicalId":518577,"journal":{"name":"Geosites","volume":"39 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140531875","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The Great Salt Lake has been rapidly shrinking since the highstand of the mid-1980s, creating cause for concern in recent decades as the lake has reached historic lows. Many investigators have assessed the evolution of lake elevation, geochemistry, anthropogenic impacts, and links to climate and atmospheric processes; however, the use of remote sensing to study the evolution of the lake has been significantly limited. Harnessing recent advancements in cloud-processing, specifically Google Earth Engine cloud computing, this study utilizes over 600 Landsat TM/OLI and Sentinel MSI satellite images from 1984-2023 to present time-series analyses of remotely sensed Great Salt Lake water area, exposed lakebed area, surface cover types, and chlorophyll-a analyses paired with modelled estimates for water and exposed lakebed area. Results show that a analyses paired with modelled estimates for water and exposed lakebed area. Results show that area has increased to ~3,500 km2 from ~500 km2. The area of unconsolidated sediments not protected by vegetation or halite crusts has risen to ~2,400 km2. Significant halite crusts are observed in the North Arm, having a max extent of ~150 km2 between 2002 and 2003, while only small extents of halite crusts are observed for the South Arm. Vegetation is more prevalent in the Bear River Bay and South Arm, with surface area increases over 400% since 1990. Gypsum is widely observed independent of halite crusts. The results highlight multiple instances of land-use/water-management that led to observable changes in water/exposed lakebed area and halite crust extent. This study demonstrates the important benefits of maintaining a lake elevation above ~4,194 ft to maximize lake and halite crust area, which would help mitigate possible dust events and maintain a broad lake extent.
{"title":"Evolution of Great Salt Lake’s Exposed Lakebed (1984-2023)","authors":"Mark H. Radwin, Brenda Bowen","doi":"10.31711/ugap.v51i.134","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.31711/ugap.v51i.134","url":null,"abstract":"The Great Salt Lake has been rapidly shrinking since the highstand of the mid-1980s, creating cause for concern in recent decades as the lake has reached historic lows. Many investigators have assessed the evolution of lake elevation, geochemistry, anthropogenic impacts, and links to climate and atmospheric processes; however, the use of remote sensing to study the evolution of the lake has been significantly limited. Harnessing recent advancements in cloud-processing, specifically Google Earth Engine cloud computing, this study utilizes over 600 Landsat TM/OLI and Sentinel MSI satellite images from 1984-2023 to present time-series analyses of remotely sensed Great Salt Lake water area, exposed lakebed area, surface cover types, and chlorophyll-a analyses paired with modelled estimates for water and exposed lakebed area. Results show that a analyses paired with modelled estimates for water and exposed lakebed area. Results show that area has increased to ~3,500 km2 from ~500 km2. The area of unconsolidated sediments not protected by vegetation or halite crusts has risen to ~2,400 km2. Significant halite crusts are observed in the North Arm, having a max extent of ~150 km2 between 2002 and 2003, while only small extents of halite crusts are observed for the South Arm. Vegetation is more prevalent in the Bear River Bay and South Arm, with surface area increases over 400% since 1990. Gypsum is widely observed independent of halite crusts. The results highlight multiple instances of land-use/water-management that led to observable changes in water/exposed lakebed area and halite crust extent. This study demonstrates the important benefits of maintaining a lake elevation above ~4,194 ft to maximize lake and halite crust area, which would help mitigate possible dust events and maintain a broad lake extent.","PeriodicalId":518577,"journal":{"name":"Geosites","volume":"2 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140531872","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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