Research Methods in Applied Linguistics最新文献

Toward ethical praxis in longitudinal research with children: Reflecting on ethical tensions in participatory research 儿童纵向研究中的伦理实践：参与性研究中的伦理张力反思

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100173

Karoliina Inha

The field of early foreign language learning research has witnessed an increasing trend to employ participatory methods, stemming from a paradigm shift in how children are viewed in research. In contrast to more traditional approaches that place children as the objects of research, children are considered active agents and participants in research with expert knowledge of their own lives. In this paper I discuss the ethical tensions that surfaced prior, during, and after a research project that employed participatory methods with young children. I reflect on how the methodology broadened understanding of emerging power differences in the researcher–participant relationship, such as how asymmetry in knowledge and participation alternate and manifest during a longitudinal project, engaging the researcher and the children in recurring negotiation of roles and power. While ethical considerations are often presented as a checklist with do's and don't’s for how to proceed, with this article I draw on experiences from my own project and aim to dismantle the complex and messy picture of the ethical process in research with young children. I argue that while the application of participatory methods in early foreign language learning research alleviates ethical tensions to an extent, such as by helping reduce epistemic and institutional power between the researcher and the participants, it is essential to report and reflect on the ethical weighing and reflection undertaken throughout the study as unequal power structures will remain regardless of method.

早期外语学习研究领域越来越多地采用参与式方法，这源于研究中如何看待儿童的范式转变。与将儿童作为研究对象的更传统的方法相反，儿童被认为是具有自己生活的专业知识的研究的积极行动者和参与者。在本文中，我讨论了在一个采用参与式方法与幼儿进行的研究项目之前，期间和之后出现的伦理紧张关系。我反思了该方法如何拓宽了对研究者-参与者关系中出现的权力差异的理解，例如在纵向项目中，知识和参与的不对称如何交替和显现，使研究者和儿童参与角色和权力的反复谈判。虽然伦理方面的考虑通常以一份清单的形式出现，上面列有如何进行的该做和不该做的事情，但在这篇文章中，我借鉴了我自己项目的经验，旨在消除幼儿研究中伦理过程的复杂和混乱局面。我认为，虽然参与式方法在早期外语学习研究中的应用在一定程度上缓解了伦理紧张关系，例如通过帮助减少研究者和参与者之间的认知和制度权力，但报告和反思整个研究过程中所进行的伦理权衡和反思是至关重要的，因为无论采用何种方法，不平等的权力结构都将继续存在。

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引用次数: 0

A conversation analysis-complex dynamics systems theory (CA-CDST) approach for analyzing longitudinal development in L2 pragmatics 会话分析-复杂动态系统理论（CA-CDST）分析二语语用纵向发展的方法

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100169

Aki Siegel , Paul Seedhouse

The compatibility of Conversation Analysis (CA) and Complex Dynamics Systems Theory Approach (CDST) in analyzing second language (L2) development has long been discussed (e.g., Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008a). Nevertheless, how CA and CDST are compatible and how the method can be applied to data to analyze L2 development has been rarely demonstrated, with a few exceptions (e.g., Siegel & Seedhouse, 2024). This paper builds upon these prior discussions, explaining the compatibility of CA and CDST and a demonstration of the Conversation Analysis-Complex Dynamics Systems Theory (CA-CDST) approach to holistically analyze L2 pragmatic development. The CA-CDST approach is exemplified through the analysis of the use of code-switching in L2 interaction. The analysis demonstrates that unmarked code-switching in L2 interaction is not an omnipresent interactional phenomenon. Rather, it is learned; it is an interactional resource that is co-constructed through the sequential process of multiple encounters, adaptation, and accommodation to both the interlocutor and the interactional setting. Moreover, the analysis demonstrates the adaptable nature of CA and how the CA-CDST can elucidate the non-linear nature of L2 pragmatic development.

对话分析（CA）和复杂动态系统理论方法（CDST）在分析第二语言（L2）发展中的兼容性早已被讨论过(如Larsen-Freeman &；卡梅伦,2008)。然而，CA和CDST如何兼容以及该方法如何应用于分析L2开发的数据很少得到证明，只有少数例外(例如，Siegel &；Seedhouse, 2024)。本文以这些先前的讨论为基础，解释了会话分析和CDST的兼容性，并演示了会话分析-复杂动态系统理论（CA-CDST）方法对二语语用发展的整体分析。CA-CDST方法是通过分析在二语交互中使用的码交换来举例说明的。分析表明，二语交互中的无标记语码转换并不是一种普遍存在的交互现象。相反，它是后天习得的；它是一种互动资源，通过多次接触、适应和适应对话者和互动环境的顺序过程共同构建而成。此外，分析还展示了语言分析的适应性，以及CA- cdst如何阐明第二语言语用发展的非线性性质。

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引用次数: 0

Categorising speakers’ language background: Theoretical assumptions and methodological challenges for learner corpus research 发言者语言背景分类：学习者语料库研究的理论假设和方法挑战

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100170

Olga Lopopolo , Arianna Bienati , Jennifer-Carmen Frey , Aivars Glaznieks , Stefania Spina

In this article, we investigate how speakers can be categorised based on their language background in the field of Learner Corpus Research (LCR). Specifically, we discuss three key aspects: first, the theoretical assumptions and methodological choices made in learner corpus design, second the integration of a holistic perspective for speaker categorisation in LCR and third the consequences that different categorisations might have on study outcomes. Through a comprehensive review of corpora used in the field, we identify the most common terms, definitions and criteria of categorisation used to describe a speaker's language background. Focusing on the most central metadata encoding language backgrounds, the L1 metadata, we inspect different operationalisations made and scrutinise the theoretical assumptions underlying them. Drawing on research on plurilingualism, we propose a holistic view of speaker's language background for Learner Corpus Research, combining various aspects of speaker's language use by methods inspired from the Dominant Language Constellation framework. We apply this methodology to re-evaluate the language categorisation system in LEONIDE, a multilingual corpus of Italian, German and English texts from secondary school students of diverse language backgrounds. We use the same corpus to evaluate the consequences of using different categorisations of the students on the outcome of possible linguistic studies. Despite a generally high overlap between study results across categorisations, we observe that variables combining multiple aspects of the speakers’ language backgrounds seem to explain group differences for more of the linguistic features investigated.

在本文中，我们将研究在学习者语料库研究（LCR）领域如何根据语言背景对说话者进行分类。具体来说，我们讨论了三个关键方面：第一，学习者语料库设计中的理论假设和方法选择；第二，LCR 中说话者分类的整体视角的整合；第三，不同分类对研究结果可能产生的影响。通过对该领域使用的语料库进行全面审查，我们确定了用于描述说话者语言背景的最常用术语、定义和分类标准。我们以编码语言背景的最核心元数据（L1 元数据）为重点，检查了不同的操作方法，并仔细研究了这些方法所依据的理论假设。借鉴多语制研究，我们为学习者语料库研究提出了关于说话人语言背景的整体观点，将说话人语言使用的各个方面通过受主导语言构成框架启发的方法结合起来。我们运用这种方法重新评估了 LEONIDE 中的语言分类系统，LEONIDE 是一个多语言语料库，包含来自不同语言背景的中学生的意大利语、德语和英语文本。我们使用同一语料库来评估使用不同的学生分类对可能的语言学研究结果的影响。尽管不同分类的研究结果之间普遍存在较高的重叠性，但我们发现，结合说话者多方面语言背景的变量似乎可以解释更多被调查语言特征的群体差异。

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引用次数: 0

Data from role plays and elicited conversations: What do they show about L2 interactional competence? 来自角色扮演和诱导会话的数据：这些数据说明了什么？

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100165

Jingxuan Wu , Carsten Roever

In research on second language (L2) interactional competence (IC), data elicitation is commonly done either through role plays or elicited conversation tasks. It is unclear, however, what aspects of IC these two methods make visible, where they elicit similar or different data and which research questions they are most suited to answer. In the current study we compare performances in role play tasks with those in elicited conversation tasks from 54 learners of L2 Mandarin Chinese and 12 native Mandarin Chinese speakers. Using conversation analysis to analyze learners’ performance, we found that role plays were highly suitable for making visible the sequential and linguistic tools interactants deploy for preference organization. Elicited conversation was useful for making topic management visible, including topic extension and topic shift. While role plays also included features of topic management and elicited conversations included features of preference organization, these did not occur with sufficient frequency and elaboration to allow defensible conclusions to be drawn. We suggest that role plays and elicited conversations can supplement each other to provide a well rounded picture of interactants’ IC.

在有关第二语言（L2）互动能力（IC）的研究中，通常通过角色扮演或诱导会话任务来获取数据。然而，目前还不清楚这两种方法能揭示 IC 的哪些方面，它们能在哪些方面获得相似或不同的数据，以及它们最适合回答哪些研究问题。在本研究中，我们比较了 54 名汉语第二语言学习者和 12 名母语为汉语的学习者在角色扮演任务和诱导会话任务中的表现。通过会话分析来分析学习者的表现，我们发现，角色扮演非常适合于显示互动者为组织偏好而使用的顺序和语言工具。诱导式会话有助于使话题管理（包括话题扩展和话题转换）清晰可见。虽然角色扮演也包括话题管理的特征，而诱导对话也包括偏好组织的特征，但这些特征出现的频率和详细程度都不足以得出可靠的结论。我们建议，角色扮演和诱导对话可以相互补充，以全面反映互动者的集成电路。

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引用次数: 0

Estimating lexical diversity using the moving average type-token ratio (MATTR): Pros and cons 使用移动平均类型-标记词比率（MATTR）估算词汇多样性：利与弊

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-21 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100168

Yves Bestgen

Several recent studies have strongly recommended the use of the moving average type-token ratio (MATTR) to estimate the lexical diversity (LD) of a text because it is the only length-insensitive index that can compare texts of different sizes. After pointing out that a length-insensitive index was proposed in the 1960s and is still being used, I analyse the properties of the MATTR computational procedure that enable it to control for the effects of length. This index is an excellent choice for evaluating the fluctuation of the LD throughout a relatively long text. However, its use for evaluating the overall LD of a text is questionable because the impact of tokens on the score varies according to their position in the text. I illustrate this problem using pseudo-texts and show that this impact is likely to affect a significant proportion of texts by analysing the distribution of hapaxes in texts by learners of Italian, Czech, German and English as a second language (L2).

最近的一些研究强烈建议使用移动平均类型-标记比（MATTR）来估算文本的词汇多样性（LD），因为它是唯一一个对长度不敏感的指数，可以比较不同大小的文本。在指出对长度不敏感的指数在 20 世纪 60 年代就已提出并仍在使用之后，我分析了 MATTR 计算程序的特性，这些特性使其能够控制长度的影响。该指数是评估篇幅相对较长的文本中 LD 波动情况的绝佳选择。然而，由于标记在文本中的位置不同，其对分数的影响也不同，因此用它来评估文本的整体 LD 是有问题的。我使用伪文本来说明这个问题，并通过分析意大利语、捷克语、德语和英语作为第二语言（L2）的学习者所写的文本中的词组分布，说明这种影响可能会影响到很大一部分文本。

引用次数: 0

Diverse population, homogenous ability: The development of a new receptive vocabulary size test for young language learners in England using Rasch analysis 多样化的人群，同质化的能力：利用拉氏分析法为英格兰年轻语言学习者开发新的接受性词汇量测试

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100166

Nicola Morea , Rowena Eloise Kasprowicz , Astrid Morrison , Carmen Silvestri

With mandatory second language learning in primary education becoming the norm worldwide, research investigating young language learners’ (YLLs) linguistic development has increased. However, designing language tests appropriate for YLLs poses unique challenges due to population characteristics and variability in national and institutional contexts. In this article, we present a new vocabulary test designed to track the rate of progression in receptive vocabulary size of primary school children learning French, German or Spanish in England.

Test content was selected after an analysis of programmes of study commonly used in primary schools in England. The test required two validation phases using Rasch analysis. The initial tests were administered to 1662 students from Year 3 (7–8 years old) to Year 5 (9–10 years old). All tests showed poor person reliability, which was driven by a mismatch between item difficulties and participant abilities. Various actions were taken in relation to vocabulary identification, test format and length, and sampling procedures, and the revised tests were re-administered to 2202 students from Year 3 to Year 6 the following year. As a result, person reliability considerably improved, and all test versions showed good fit to the Rasch model.

Drawing on the lessons learnt, we discuss some of the key population- and context-related challenges of designing robust language tests for beginner YLLs learning a language other than English in input-poor, instructed contexts. Further, we provide recommendations on suitable approaches for test-item identification, test format and length, and data analysis.

随着在初等教育中强制学习第二语言在全球范围内成为常态，对青少年语言学习者（YLLs）语言发展的研究也在不断增加。然而，由于人口特点以及国家和机构背景的差异，设计适合幼儿语言学习者的语言测试面临着独特的挑战。在这篇文章中，我们介绍了一种新的词汇测试，旨在跟踪英国小学生学习法语、德语或西班牙语时接受词汇量的进展速度。测试内容是在对英格兰小学常用的学习计划进行分析后选定的。测试需要使用拉施分析法进行两个阶段的验证。最初的测试对 1662 名三年级（7-8 岁）至五年级（9-10 岁）的学生进行了测试。所有测试均显示出较低的人际信度，这是由于测试项目的难度与受测者的能力不匹配造成的。我们在词汇识别、测试形式和长度以及抽样程序等方面采取了各种措施，并在第二年对三至六年级的 2202 名学生重新进行了修订后的测试。在吸取经验教训的基础上，我们讨论了在输入贫乏的教学环境中，为学习英语以外语言的初学青年学生设计稳健的语言测试所面临的一些与人口和环境相关的主要挑战。此外，我们还就测试项目的确定、测试形式和长度以及数据分析的合适方法提出了建议。

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引用次数: 0

What automatic speech recognition can and cannot do for conversational speech transcription 自动语音识别在会话语音转录方面能做什么，不能做什么

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-10 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100163

Sam O’Connor Russell , Iona Gessinger , Anna Krason , Gabriella Vigliocco , Naomi Harte

Transcripts are vital in any research involving conversation. Most transcription is conducted manually, by experts; a process which can take many times longer than the conversation itself. Recently, there has been interest in using automatic speech recognition (ASR) to automate transcription, driven by the wide availability of ASR platforms such as OpenAI’s Whisper. However as studies typically focus on metrics such as the word error rate, there is a lack of detail about ASR transcript quality and the practicalities of ASR use in research. In this paper we review six state-of-the-art ASR technologies, three commercial and three open-source. We assess their capabilities as automatic transcription tools. We find that the commercial ASR systems mostly capture an accurate representation of what was said, and overlapping speech is handled well. Unlike prior work, we show that commercial ASR also preserves the location, but not necessarily the spelling of a large majority of non-lexical tokens: short words such as uh-hum which play vital roles in conversation. We show that the open-source ASR systems produce substantially more errors than their commercial counterparts. However, we highlight how the cost and privacy advantages of open-source ASR may outweigh performance issues in certain applications. We discuss practical considerations for ASR deployment in research, concluding that present ASR technology cannot yet replace the trained transcriber. However, a high-quality initial transcript generated by ASR can provide a good starting point and may be further refined by manual correction. We make all ASR-generated transcripts available for future research in the supplementary material.

在任何涉及对话的研究中，转录都是至关重要的。大多数转录工作都是由专家手工完成的；这一过程所需的时间可能是对话本身的好几倍。最近，在自动语音识别（ASR）平台（如 OpenAI 的 Whisper）广泛应用的推动下，人们对使用自动语音识别（ASR）自动转录产生了兴趣。然而，由于研究通常侧重于单词错误率等指标，因此缺乏有关 ASR 转录质量和在研究中使用 ASR 的实用性的详细信息。在本文中，我们回顾了六种最先进的 ASR 技术，其中三种为商业技术，三种为开源技术。我们评估了它们作为自动转录工具的能力。我们发现，商业 ASR 系统大多能准确捕捉语音内容，并能很好地处理重叠语音。与之前的研究不同，我们发现商业 ASR 还能保留大部分非词汇标记的位置，但不一定能保留其拼写：如 uh-hum 等在对话中起重要作用的短词。我们的研究表明，开源 ASR 系统产生的错误远远多于商用系统。不过，我们强调了开源 ASR 在成本和隐私方面的优势在某些应用中可能会超过性能问题。我们讨论了在研究中部署 ASR 的实际考虑因素，认为目前的 ASR 技术还不能取代训练有素的誊写员。不过，ASR 生成的高质量初始誊本可以提供一个良好的起点，并可通过人工校正进一步完善。我们在补充材料中提供了所有 ASR 生成的记录誊本，供未来研究使用。

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引用次数: 0

Validating the foreign language enjoyment scale for young learners: An exploratory structural equation modeling approach 验证针对年轻学习者的外语乐趣量表：探索性结构方程模型方法

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100167

Yohei Nakanishi, Osamu Takeuchi

Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) has garnered scholarly attention within the framework of positive psychology. However, FLE-related studies have predominantly focused on adult learners, with little exploration into FLE among young language learners (YLLs). Consequently, little is known about the factorial structure of FLE and its sources for YLLs. This study aims to develop and validate the foreign language enjoyment scale (FLES) designed for YLLs by comparing four models: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), bifactor CFA, ESEM, and bifactor ESEM, based on Alamer's (2022) guidelines for ESEM. 510 Japanese elementary ESL learners in the 5th and 6th grades participated in this study. The analysis of the four models revealed that the bifactor ESEM outperformed the others in terms of model fit and comparative indices, identifying a three-factor model of FLE, which is consistent with prior studies on adult learners. The findings from this study not only contribute to further understanding of FLE within a less-studied population but also advance methodological approaches for scale validation in applied linguistics.

在积极心理学的框架内，外语乐趣（FLE）已经引起了学术界的关注。然而，与 FLE 相关的研究主要集中在成人学习者身上，对青少年语言学习者（YLLs）的 FLE 探索甚少。因此，人们对 FLE 的因子结构及其在青年语言学习者中的来源知之甚少。本研究旨在根据 Alamer（2022 年）的 ESEM 指南，通过比较四种模型：确认性因子分析（CFA）、双因子 CFA、ESEM 和双因子 ESEM，开发并验证专为青少年设计的外语乐趣量表（FLES）。510 名五、六年级的日本小学 ESL 学习者参与了本研究。对四个模型的分析表明，双因素 ESEM 在模型拟合度和比较指数方面优于其他模型，确定了 FLE 的三因素模型，这与之前对成人学习者的研究一致。本研究的发现不仅有助于进一步了解研究较少的人群中的 FLE，而且还推进了应用语言学中量表验证的方法。

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引用次数: 0

A social media simulation for investigating humor in speech acts 用于研究言语行为中的幽默的社交媒体模拟

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100157

Xiaoying Liles

This report presents the development of the SocialNet Discourse Completion Task (DCT) to investigate humor in social media compliment responses. Building on observations by Bell et al. (2021), who introduced DCTs to explore L2 humor production, and Hashimoto and Nelson (2020), who emulated online forum interaction to produce language samples comparable to corpus data, this study extends DCTs to computer-mediated communication (CMC) using a “CMC-for-CMC” approach. The task engages participants with humorous contexts, amusing compliments, and close emulation of online interactions, revealing increased humor production rates. This report discusses the benefits of the instrument, provides preliminary evidence supporting its effectiveness and validity, and outlines its future directions in L2 pragmatics studies.

本报告介绍了社交网络话语完成任务（DCT）的开发情况，以调查社交媒体点赞回复中的幽默。贝尔等人（Bell et al.，2021 年）和桥本和尼尔森（Hashimoto and Nelson，2020 年）分别引入了 DCTs 和 DCTs（DCTs 用于探索 L2 的幽默生成），前者通过模拟在线论坛互动来生成与语料库数据相当的语言样本，后者则通过 "CMC-for-CMC "方法将 DCTs 扩展到了计算机辅助交流（CMC）。该任务让参与者参与幽默语境、有趣的赞美以及在线互动的近距离模拟，从而提高了幽默的产生率。本报告讨论了该工具的益处，提供了支持其有效性和有效性的初步证据，并概述了其在 L2 语用学研究中的未来发展方向。

引用次数: 0

Exploring the dynamics of engagement in the language classroom: A critical examination of methodological approaches 探索语文课堂参与的动力：对教学方法的批判性研究

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics

Pub Date : 2024-11-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100162

Giulia Sulis

Engagement defines the depth and quality of the learning experience, and is thus considered as an essential component of learning. Researchers agree on three defining characteristics of engagement in language learning; it is action-oriented, dynamic, and context-dependent. Engagement changes over time as learners interact with their environment. As such, by investigating the temporal dynamics of engagement in authentic learning contexts, we can gain insights into how engagement can be triggered and sustained over time. Yet, much of the existing research on language learning engagement has relied on cross-sectional surveys, without explicitly accounting for the temporal dimension of engagement in the research design. Furthermore, only a limited yet growing body of applied linguistics research to date has investigated engagement in authentic learning contexts and intact lessons.

Drawing on qualitative data collected during one English lesson in an Austrian middle school, this article critically evaluates three distinct research approaches that can be employed to examine the temporal dynamics of language learning engagement in the context of authentic classroom life: Experience Sampling Method (ESM), Video Enhanced Observation (VEO), and stimulated recall. The article will reflect on the advantages and challenges of each research approach, illustrating its use and the kind of insights generated in the Austrian language classroom. To conclude, the article will propose an integrated approach that combines the strengths of the three methods.

参与决定了学习体验的深度和质量，因此被视为学习的重要组成部分。研究人员一致认为，语言学习中的 "投入 "有三个决定性的特征：以行动为导向、动态、依赖语境。随着时间的推移，学习者的参与度会随着学习环境的变化而变化。因此，通过研究真实学习情境中参与的时间动态，我们可以深入了解参与是如何随着时间的推移而激发和维持的。然而，关于语言学习参与度的现有研究大多依赖于横断面调查，没有在研究设计中明确考虑参与度的时间维度。本文利用在奥地利一所中学的一节英语课上收集到的定性数据，对三种不同的研究方法进行了批判性评估，这些方法可用于研究真实课堂生活背景下语言学习参与的时间动态：经验取样法（ESM）、视频强化观察法（VEO）和刺激回忆法。文章将反思每种研究方法的优势和挑战，说明其在奥地利语言课堂中的使用情况和产生的启示。最后，文章将提出一种综合方法，将三种方法的优势结合起来。

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引用次数: 0