Pub Date : 2021-08-26DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0003
Vanda Wilcox
When the July Crisis erupted, Italy was allied to its neighbour Austria-Hungary, but most Italians had little interest in fighting for it. On 3 August 1914 Italy declared its neutrality with the support of most of the population. However, the prospect of joining the war on the other side was soon raised, and both the Entente and the Central Powers began to court the Italian government in hope of securing its allegiance. A small but vocal interventionist movement emerged as public opinion evolved. Irredentism motivated some interventionists, while others adopted pragmatic positions or embraced the rhetoric of a war for democracy; some placed the war in a wider imperial context right from the start, hoping to acquire as yet undefined territories beyond national borders. At last, in April 1915, Italy signed the Treaty of London, committing to join the Entente in pursuit of expansionist aims: it hoped both to complete national unification and to receive territorial compensation elsewhere.
当七月危机爆发时，意大利与邻国奥匈帝国结盟，但大多数意大利人对为它而战没什么兴趣。1914年8月3日，意大利在大多数人的支持下宣布中立。然而，加入另一方参战的可能性很快就出现了，协约国和同盟国都开始向意大利政府示好，希望获得其效忠。随着公众舆论的演变，出现了一场规模虽小但声音响亮的干预运动。民族统一主义激发了一些干涉主义者，而另一些人则采取了务实的立场，或者接受了为民主而战的言论;一些人从一开始就把这场战争放在更广阔的帝国背景下，希望在国界之外获得尚未定义的领土。最后，在1915年4月，意大利签署了《伦敦条约》(Treaty of London)，承诺加入协约国以追求扩张主义的目标:它既希望完成国家统一，又希望在其他地方获得领土补偿。
{"title":"From Neutrality to Intervention, 1914–15","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"When the July Crisis erupted, Italy was allied to its neighbour Austria-Hungary, but most Italians had little interest in fighting for it. On 3 August 1914 Italy declared its neutrality with the support of most of the population. However, the prospect of joining the war on the other side was soon raised, and both the Entente and the Central Powers began to court the Italian government in hope of securing its allegiance. A small but vocal interventionist movement emerged as public opinion evolved. Irredentism motivated some interventionists, while others adopted pragmatic positions or embraced the rhetoric of a war for democracy; some placed the war in a wider imperial context right from the start, hoping to acquire as yet undefined territories beyond national borders. At last, in April 1915, Italy signed the Treaty of London, committing to join the Entente in pursuit of expansionist aims: it hoped both to complete national unification and to receive territorial compensation elsewhere.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"106 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124223192","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-26DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0007
Vanda Wilcox
Italy entered the war to cement its great power status. To convince its Entente partners it was actively contributing to the global struggle, it sent troops first to Albania and later Macedonia, both in pursuit of territorial goals and to support the allies. As the conflict expanded in scope and scale, Italian war aims grew correspondingly: in 1917 a new allied agreement promised Italy territorial compensation in Asia Minor. The St Jean de Maurienne Agreement also enabled Italy to send a tiny expeditionary force to Palestine. By 1918 the need to demonstrate a global commitment led to even more overseas deployment for Italian forces: units were sent to France to the Western Front and to both Murmansk and Manchuria to fight in the Russian Civil War. Despite all these far-flung missions, however, only in Albania was there any intention to remain after the war’s end.
{"title":"The War Beyond Italy","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Italy entered the war to cement its great power status. To convince its Entente partners it was actively contributing to the global struggle, it sent troops first to Albania and later Macedonia, both in pursuit of territorial goals and to support the allies. As the conflict expanded in scope and scale, Italian war aims grew correspondingly: in 1917 a new allied agreement promised Italy territorial compensation in Asia Minor. The St Jean de Maurienne Agreement also enabled Italy to send a tiny expeditionary force to Palestine. By 1918 the need to demonstrate a global commitment led to even more overseas deployment for Italian forces: units were sent to France to the Western Front and to both Murmansk and Manchuria to fight in the Russian Civil War. Despite all these far-flung missions, however, only in Albania was there any intention to remain after the war’s end.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"111 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124077461","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-26DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0004
Vanda Wilcox
From the period of neutrality onwards, Italy mobilized a mass conscript army which drew on Italians from around the peninsula as well as emigrants overseas, though after much debate colonial troops were not brought to Italy. Despite the lack of widespread war enthusiasm, most men within Italy complied with the draft, and the army was soon able to deploy over a million men at the front. For emigrants, the decision to return and fight was complex yet many did so. Fighting was concentrated along the Italo-Austrian border, where chief of general staff Cadorna hoped to break through Austrian defences. The tactical difficulties of trench warfare combined with difficult terrain led to strategic immobility along this front, with eleven battles fought along the river Isonzo. In 1917 a joint Austro-German attack at Caporetto achieved a major victory but Italy was able to recover and defend itself successfully, with Allied support, before eventually returning to the offensive in 1918.
{"title":"Italians on the Battlefield","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"From the period of neutrality onwards, Italy mobilized a mass conscript army which drew on Italians from around the peninsula as well as emigrants overseas, though after much debate colonial troops were not brought to Italy. Despite the lack of widespread war enthusiasm, most men within Italy complied with the draft, and the army was soon able to deploy over a million men at the front. For emigrants, the decision to return and fight was complex yet many did so. Fighting was concentrated along the Italo-Austrian border, where chief of general staff Cadorna hoped to break through Austrian defences. The tactical difficulties of trench warfare combined with difficult terrain led to strategic immobility along this front, with eleven battles fought along the river Isonzo. In 1917 a joint Austro-German attack at Caporetto achieved a major victory but Italy was able to recover and defend itself successfully, with Allied support, before eventually returning to the offensive in 1918.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"51 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121542721","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-26DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0002
Vanda Wilcox
For Italian nationalists, the nation was still incomplete after unification in 1861; they embraced the irredentist goal of incorporating Trento and Trieste, still in Austrian hands. The Triple Alliance which tied Italy to Germany and Austria-Hungary in a defensive pact made it hard to directly pursue this objective. Meanwhile, Italian ambitions to build a colonial empire began in the 1870s with the acquisition of Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa, before meeting a set-back with the crushing defeat by Ethiopia at Adwa in 1896. Liberals embraced an alternate, uniquely Italian vision of empire, built on emigrant colonies around the world. Advocates of traditional settler colonialism instead turned their attention to the Mediterranean and specifically to the so-called ‘Fourth Shore’ of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Considerable consensus emerged around attacking the Ottoman Empire in 1911; after a year of war, Italy officially acquired Libya and the Dodecanese Islands. But irredentist hopes, and ambitions in the Balkans, were not sated by this expansion.
{"title":"Imperialism and Irredentism in Liberal Italy","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"For Italian nationalists, the nation was still incomplete after unification in 1861; they embraced the irredentist goal of incorporating Trento and Trieste, still in Austrian hands. The Triple Alliance which tied Italy to Germany and Austria-Hungary in a defensive pact made it hard to directly pursue this objective. Meanwhile, Italian ambitions to build a colonial empire began in the 1870s with the acquisition of Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa, before meeting a set-back with the crushing defeat by Ethiopia at Adwa in 1896. Liberals embraced an alternate, uniquely Italian vision of empire, built on emigrant colonies around the world. Advocates of traditional settler colonialism instead turned their attention to the Mediterranean and specifically to the so-called ‘Fourth Shore’ of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Considerable consensus emerged around attacking the Ottoman Empire in 1911; after a year of war, Italy officially acquired Libya and the Dodecanese Islands. But irredentist hopes, and ambitions in the Balkans, were not sated by this expansion.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132316221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-26DOI: 10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0010
Vanda Wilcox
The rejection of the Italian demand for Fiume led to much anger in Italy; interventionist poet Gabriele D’Annunzio spoke of a ‘mutilated victory’. Capitalizing on nationalist fury he independently led a small group to seize the city directly, creating serious tensions with Yugoslavia. Italian military occupations in neighbouring areas of Dalmatia sought to lay foundations for Italian possession but were unpopular with locals; Italian forces showed signs of growing radical nationalism. By the end of 1920 Italy had been forced to renounce most of its claims and D’Annunzio was forced out of Fiume. Further south in Albania Italy hoped to create a long-lasting protectorate building on its wartime occupation, but here too its colonial approach was unpopular and by August 1920 it had to admit its failure.
{"title":"Post-war Settlements in the Adriatic and the Balkans","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OSO/9780198822943.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"The rejection of the Italian demand for Fiume led to much anger in Italy; interventionist poet Gabriele D’Annunzio spoke of a ‘mutilated victory’. Capitalizing on nationalist fury he independently led a small group to seize the city directly, creating serious tensions with Yugoslavia. Italian military occupations in neighbouring areas of Dalmatia sought to lay foundations for Italian possession but were unpopular with locals; Italian forces showed signs of growing radical nationalism. By the end of 1920 Italy had been forced to renounce most of its claims and D’Annunzio was forced out of Fiume. Further south in Albania Italy hoped to create a long-lasting protectorate building on its wartime occupation, but here too its colonial approach was unpopular and by August 1920 it had to admit its failure.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"108 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132781909","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
With the mobilization of Italy’s society and economy for war, the lives of millions of men, women, and children were transformed. Whether emigrants, colonists, or mainland residents, Italians raised funds, worked in war industries, supported family members at the front, prayed for victory, and engaged in patriotic activities—or, alternatively, in anti-war politics. Anti-war sentiment, both real and imagined, encouraged the government to adopt increasingly harsh repressive measures—which in turn further alienated some sectors of the population. Socialists were particularly the object of official suspicion, while by contrast Catholics built an unprecedented bond with the nation. As the state sought to mobilize all available manpower, Italians overseas and in the colonies had a vital part to play. The authorities also sought to maximize the economic contribution, whether in money or materials, that Italy’s empire could make to the war effort—though with limited results.
{"title":"Societies at War","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1553/melammu10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1553/melammu10","url":null,"abstract":"With the mobilization of Italy’s society and economy for war, the lives of millions of men, women, and children were transformed. Whether emigrants, colonists, or mainland residents, Italians raised funds, worked in war industries, supported family members at the front, prayed for victory, and engaged in patriotic activities—or, alternatively, in anti-war politics. Anti-war sentiment, both real and imagined, encouraged the government to adopt increasingly harsh repressive measures—which in turn further alienated some sectors of the population. Socialists were particularly the object of official suspicion, while by contrast Catholics built an unprecedented bond with the nation. As the state sought to mobilize all available manpower, Italians overseas and in the colonies had a vital part to play. The authorities also sought to maximize the economic contribution, whether in money or materials, that Italy’s empire could make to the war effort—though with limited results.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"146 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122860204","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-22DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0009
Vanda Wilcox
When the war ended, the domestic political situation was tense and the economy rapidly entered a crisis. Public opinion required that Italy’s huge sacrifices be vindicated by the war’s outcome, leading Vittorio Orlando’s government to request even more territory than had originally be agreed by the Treaty of London. Foreign minister Sonnino, an ambitious imperialist, demanded Fiume and also sought expanded colonial compensation. But Woodrow Wilson refused to accept Italian possession of Slav-inhabited lands, which he wished to see allocated to Yugoslavia. Diplomatic errors, Wilson’s opposition, Greek rivalry, and above all the changed international landscape meant that Italy’s leadership failed utterly to achieve its goals in Paris.
战争结束后，国内政治局势紧张，经济迅速陷入危机。公众舆论要求意大利的巨大牺牲以战争的结果来证明是正确的，这导致维托里奥·奥兰多(Vittorio Orlando)政府要求获得比《伦敦条约》(Treaty of London)最初同意的更多的领土。外交部长Sonnino是一个野心勃勃的帝国主义者，他要求Fiume，并要求扩大殖民赔偿。但伍德罗·威尔逊拒绝接受意大利占有斯拉夫人居住的土地，他希望看到这些土地分配给南斯拉夫。外交上的失误、威尔逊的反对、希腊的对抗，以及最重要的国际形势的变化，意味着意大利的领导层完全未能实现在巴黎达成的目标。
{"title":"The Paris Peace Conference and Beyond","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"When the war ended, the domestic political situation was tense and the economy rapidly entered a crisis. Public opinion required that Italy’s huge sacrifices be vindicated by the war’s outcome, leading Vittorio Orlando’s government to request even more territory than had originally be agreed by the Treaty of London. Foreign minister Sonnino, an ambitious imperialist, demanded Fiume and also sought expanded colonial compensation. But Woodrow Wilson refused to accept Italian possession of Slav-inhabited lands, which he wished to see allocated to Yugoslavia. Diplomatic errors, Wilson’s opposition, Greek rivalry, and above all the changed international landscape meant that Italy’s leadership failed utterly to achieve its goals in Paris.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128850958","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-22DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0008
Vanda Wilcox
As a relatively new nation-state, which considered itself to be territorially incomplete, Italy faced a challenge in defining Italian identity. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, italianità—Italianness—became understood in increasingly racialized terms. Eugenics thrived in Italy and race theory underpinned attitudes not only to colonialism and colonial subjects but also to the conduct of war, among the general public and particularly in military circles. The results can clearly be seen in the conduct of the Italian army in Libya, both in 1911–12 and during the First World War, and in Italy’s treatment of Slav and German civilians under military occupation. Racial definitions of italianità also shaped attitudes to the rights, duties, and delimitation of Italian citizenship, especially under the pressures of war.
{"title":"Race, Nationality, and Citizenship","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0008","url":null,"abstract":"As a relatively new nation-state, which considered itself to be territorially incomplete, Italy faced a challenge in defining Italian identity. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, italianità—Italianness—became understood in increasingly racialized terms. Eugenics thrived in Italy and race theory underpinned attitudes not only to colonialism and colonial subjects but also to the conduct of war, among the general public and particularly in military circles. The results can clearly be seen in the conduct of the Italian army in Libya, both in 1911–12 and during the First World War, and in Italy’s treatment of Slav and German civilians under military occupation. Racial definitions of italianità also shaped attitudes to the rights, duties, and delimitation of Italian citizenship, especially under the pressures of war.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"14 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131675161","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-22DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0012
Vanda Wilcox
Italy fought the Great War in pursuit of a Greater Italy; to that end, all the resources of nation and empire were mobilised. The end of the First World War saw the demise of the liberal emigrant model in Italy, in which diaspora communities were still colonies, in favour of a more conventional vision based solely on direct territorial control. Tracing the growth of Italian colonial ambitions from 1911 through to 1923 as against the objective decline and weakening of its real empire highlights the extent to which it was an empire of fantasy as much as reality. Nonetheless, though in many ways insubstantial, empire and above all the idea of empire exerted enormous influence on Italian attitudes, policies, and priorities in the era of the First World War, with devastating long-term consequences.
{"title":"Conclusion","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"Italy fought the Great War in pursuit of a Greater Italy; to that end, all the resources of nation and empire were mobilised. The end of the First World War saw the demise of the liberal emigrant model in Italy, in which diaspora communities were still colonies, in favour of a more conventional vision based solely on direct territorial control. Tracing the growth of Italian colonial ambitions from 1911 through to 1923 as against the objective decline and weakening of its real empire highlights the extent to which it was an empire of fantasy as much as reality. Nonetheless, though in many ways insubstantial, empire and above all the idea of empire exerted enormous influence on Italian attitudes, policies, and priorities in the era of the First World War, with devastating long-term consequences.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129054551","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-22DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0011
Vanda Wilcox
Italy joined the Allies in sending troops to occupy the defeated Ottoman Empire; a detachment went to Constantinople while a larger Expeditionary Force, commanded from the Dodecanese islands, moved into Antalya and the surrounding region where Italy hoped to create a lasting Eastern Mediterranean sphere of influence or even perhaps a League of Nations Mandate. Ultimately, the Treaty of Sèvres was a disappointment, offering no guarantees in Asia Minor; since Italy was both unwilling and unable to fight against Atatürk’s forces to secure its goals in Turkey, it was forced to withdraw altogether by 1923, though it kept hold of the Dodecanese. In Libya, having lost functional control of the interior, Italy had few options but to concede considerable power to Sanussiya brotherhood and others. It also granted local constitutions in 1919, creating a new form of colonial citizenship there. Far from expanding it, the war had left Italy’s empire weakened.
{"title":"Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean After the War","authors":"Vanda Wilcox","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"Italy joined the Allies in sending troops to occupy the defeated Ottoman Empire; a detachment went to Constantinople while a larger Expeditionary Force, commanded from the Dodecanese islands, moved into Antalya and the surrounding region where Italy hoped to create a lasting Eastern Mediterranean sphere of influence or even perhaps a League of Nations Mandate. Ultimately, the Treaty of Sèvres was a disappointment, offering no guarantees in Asia Minor; since Italy was both unwilling and unable to fight against Atatürk’s forces to secure its goals in Turkey, it was forced to withdraw altogether by 1923, though it kept hold of the Dodecanese. In Libya, having lost functional control of the interior, Italy had few options but to concede considerable power to Sanussiya brotherhood and others. It also granted local constitutions in 1919, creating a new form of colonial citizenship there. Far from expanding it, the war had left Italy’s empire weakened.","PeriodicalId":152946,"journal":{"name":"The Italian Empire and the Great War","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131143234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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