Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411088
Tianxi Zhang
It is generally believed that matter inside or once entering a black hole will gravitationally fall into the center and form a size-less singularity, where the density goes to infinity and the spacetime breaks down with infinite curvature or gravitation. In accordance to the Unruh effect, one of the most surprizing predictions of quantum field theory, however, it is found from this study that such singularity cannot be actually formed because it violates the law of energy conservation. The total Unruh radiation energy of the size-less singularity is shown to be infinite, much greater than that the collapsing matter can generate. All the energies of the collapsing matter including the gravitational potential energy, deducted, are far below the Unruh radiation energy, increased, for the collapsing matter to form the singularity. The collapsing matter actually formed is shown to be not a size-less singular point but a small sphere with a finite radius, which is found to be dependent of the mass of the singularity sphere, approximately proportional to the square root of the mass. The radius of the singularity sphere cannot be zero, unless the mass also approaches to zero. The result obtained from this study not only provides us a quantum solution to the problem of black hole singularity, but also leads to profound implications to the spacetime and cosmology. The Unruh effect excludes a black hole to form a size-less singularity, which has a finite mass but infinite density, curvature, and Unruh radiation energy. A point-like or size-less singularity can only be massless and naked.
{"title":"Quantum Unruh Effect on Singularities of Black Holes","authors":"Tianxi Zhang","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411088","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411088","url":null,"abstract":"It is generally believed that matter inside or once entering a black hole will gravitationally fall into the center and form a size-less singularity, where the density goes to infinity and the spacetime breaks down with infinite curvature or gravitation. In accordance to the Unruh effect, one of the most surprizing predictions of quantum field theory, however, it is found from this study that such singularity cannot be actually formed because it violates the law of energy conservation. The total Unruh radiation energy of the size-less singularity is shown to be infinite, much greater than that the collapsing matter can generate. All the energies of the collapsing matter including the gravitational potential energy, deducted, are far below the Unruh radiation energy, increased, for the collapsing matter to form the singularity. The collapsing matter actually formed is shown to be not a size-less singular point but a small sphere with a finite radius, which is found to be dependent of the mass of the singularity sphere, approximately proportional to the square root of the mass. The radius of the singularity sphere cannot be zero, unless the mass also approaches to zero. The result obtained from this study not only provides us a quantum solution to the problem of black hole singularity, but also leads to profound implications to the spacetime and cosmology. The Unruh effect excludes a black hole to form a size-less singularity, which has a finite mass but infinite density, curvature, and Unruh radiation energy. A point-like or size-less singularity can only be massless and naked.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135261624","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411083
Richard B. Holmes
A universe consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons with electrical neutrality is consistent with an equal number of c and preons, assuming the rishon preon theory of Shupe and Harari. Similarly, a universe consisting of antiprotons, antineutrons, and positrons with electrical neutrality is consistent with an equal number of c and preons. Hence, any combination of such matter-antimatter compositions is also consistent with an equal number of c and preons and overall electrical neutrality. It is proposed that the difference observed in baryon-antibaryon number density relative to photon number density, ~5 × 10-10, is due to allocation of preons between matter and antimatter during preon condensation into normal matter. Three approaches of increasing rigor and complexity are considered: 1) an allocation at times corresponding to the Planck temperature due to fluctuations, 2) an allocation at times corresponding to quark formation due to preon bonding, and 3) an allocation at times corresponding to the electroweak scale. All approaches can give the correct order of magnitude of the asymmetry assuming out-of-equili-brium freeze-out and a slight and allowed charge (C) asymmetry in preon condensation in a self-consistent quantum field theory. Sakharov’s baryon non-conservation condition is evidently circumvented with these approaches, because they assume another level of matter (preons) which is present before quark formation. Thus, preons can provide an elementary explanation of primordial matter-antimatter asymmetry. A relationship between Higgs boson states and preons is proposed.
{"title":"Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry from Preon Condensation Prior to the Hadron Epoch","authors":"Richard B. Holmes","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411083","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411083","url":null,"abstract":"A universe consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons with electrical neutrality is consistent with an equal number of c and preons, assuming the rishon preon theory of Shupe and Harari. Similarly, a universe consisting of antiprotons, antineutrons, and positrons with electrical neutrality is consistent with an equal number of c and preons. Hence, any combination of such matter-antimatter compositions is also consistent with an equal number of c and preons and overall electrical neutrality. It is proposed that the difference observed in baryon-antibaryon number density relative to photon number density, ~5 × 10-10, is due to allocation of preons between matter and antimatter during preon condensation into normal matter. Three approaches of increasing rigor and complexity are considered: 1) an allocation at times corresponding to the Planck temperature due to fluctuations, 2) an allocation at times corresponding to quark formation due to preon bonding, and 3) an allocation at times corresponding to the electroweak scale. All approaches can give the correct order of magnitude of the asymmetry assuming out-of-equili-brium freeze-out and a slight and allowed charge (C) asymmetry in preon condensation in a self-consistent quantum field theory. Sakharov’s baryon non-conservation condition is evidently circumvented with these approaches, because they assume another level of matter (preons) which is present before quark formation. Thus, preons can provide an elementary explanation of primordial matter-antimatter asymmetry. A relationship between Higgs boson states and preons is proposed.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135101995","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1412090
Arlen Young
The author’s earlier papers proposed a model of the electron’s internal structure comprised of both positive and negative masses and charges. Their relation to the fine structure constant a was calculated in the author’s previous paper. In this paper, more details of the model of the electron’s internal structure, in particular the thicknesses of its outer shell mass and charge, are calculated. Magnetostriction of the electron’s surface is generated by the electron’s spinning surface charge. It is calculated that this magnetostriction holds the electron together, counterbalancing the outward electrical and centrifugal forces. The results of these calculations enable the prediction that a sufficiently strong external magnetic field can split the electron into three equal pieces. The field strength would have to be on the order of at least 8% of the strength at the center of the electron. A model for the origin and creation of an electron from a gamma ray wave is proposed. Evidence is presented that, for certain transitions, mass might be quantized and that the quantum of mass would be 1/2a times the electron mass.
{"title":"Origin, Creation, and Splitting of the Electron","authors":"Arlen Young","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1412090","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1412090","url":null,"abstract":"The author’s earlier papers proposed a model of the electron’s internal structure comprised of both positive and negative masses and charges. Their relation to the fine structure constant a was calculated in the author’s previous paper. In this paper, more details of the model of the electron’s internal structure, in particular the thicknesses of its outer shell mass and charge, are calculated. Magnetostriction of the electron’s surface is generated by the electron’s spinning surface charge. It is calculated that this magnetostriction holds the electron together, counterbalancing the outward electrical and centrifugal forces. The results of these calculations enable the prediction that a sufficiently strong external magnetic field can split the electron into three equal pieces. The field strength would have to be on the order of at least 8% of the strength at the center of the electron. A model for the origin and creation of an electron from a gamma ray wave is proposed. Evidence is presented that, for certain transitions, mass might be quantized and that the quantum of mass would be 1/2a times the electron mass.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"158 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135562257","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411084
Paolo Christillin
Comparison of the Hubble parameter with cosmological quantities strongly supports the black hole model for the description of the Universe evolution. Such evolution requires matter creation and has implications for what is currently referred to as “dark energy” and the “cosmological constant”.
{"title":"From the Hubble Constant to the Black Hole Model. Universe Expansion with Matter Creation and a New Perspective on Dark Energy Observations","authors":"Paolo Christillin","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411084","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411084","url":null,"abstract":"Comparison of the Hubble parameter with cosmological quantities strongly supports the black hole model for the description of the Universe evolution. Such evolution requires matter creation and has implications for what is currently referred to as “dark energy” and the “cosmological constant”.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135103854","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411082
Claude Daviau, Jacques Bertrand
A century ago, de Broglie discovered the wave associated to the motion of the electron. We present here the soliton solutions of a nonlinear relativistic wave equation. Two such solitons exist, corresponding to the two possible states of a particle with spin j = 1/2. The mystery of wave-particle dualism is solved: the electron is both a particle, a point which is a singularity, and a wave extended throughout the whole space.
{"title":"Soliton Wave for the Magnetic Electron","authors":"Claude Daviau, Jacques Bertrand","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411082","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411082","url":null,"abstract":"A century ago, de Broglie discovered the wave associated to the motion of the electron. We present here the soliton solutions of a nonlinear relativistic wave equation. Two such solitons exist, corresponding to the two possible states of a particle with spin j = 1/2. The mystery of wave-particle dualism is solved: the electron is both a particle, a point which is a singularity, and a wave extended throughout the whole space.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"102 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135103859","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411081
Ahmad A. Hujeirat, Mauritz M. Wicker
Based on the theory and observations of glitching pulsars, we show that the ultra-cold supranuclear dense matter inside the cores of massive pulsars should condensate in vacua, as predicated by non-perturbative QCD. The trapped matter here forms false vacuums embedded in flat spacetimes and completely disconnected from the outside world. Although the vacuum expectation value here vanishes, the masses and sizes of these incompressible superfluid cores are set to grow with cosmic times, in accord with the Onsager-Feynman superfluidity analysis. We apply our scenario to several well-studied pulsars, namely the Crab, Vela, PSR J0740+6620 and find that the trapped mass-contents in their cores read {0.15,0.55,0.64}, implying that their true masses are {1.55,2.35,2.72} , respectively. Based thereon, we conclude that: 1) The true masses of massive pulsars and neutron stars are much higher than detected by direct observations and, therefore, are unbounded from above, 2) The remnant of the merger event in GW170817 should be a massive NS harbouring a core with 1.66 .
{"title":"Evidence for False Vacuum States inside the Cores of Massive Pulsars and the Ramification on the Measurements of Their True Masses","authors":"Ahmad A. Hujeirat, Mauritz M. Wicker","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411081","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411081","url":null,"abstract":"Based on the theory and observations of glitching pulsars, we show that the ultra-cold supranuclear dense matter inside the cores of massive pulsars should condensate in vacua, as predicated by non-perturbative QCD. The trapped matter here forms false vacuums embedded in flat spacetimes and completely disconnected from the outside world. Although the vacuum expectation value here vanishes, the masses and sizes of these incompressible superfluid cores are set to grow with cosmic times, in accord with the Onsager-Feynman superfluidity analysis. We apply our scenario to several well-studied pulsars, namely the Crab, Vela, PSR J0740+6620 and find that the trapped mass-contents in their cores read {0.15,0.55,0.64}, implying that their true masses are {1.55,2.35,2.72} , respectively. Based thereon, we conclude that: 1) The true masses of massive pulsars and neutron stars are much higher than detected by direct observations and, therefore, are unbounded from above, 2) The remnant of the merger event in GW170817 should be a massive NS harbouring a core with 1.66 .","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135784580","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1412091
Mitsuaki Nagata
Since a thrust of an ion rocket engine is much weaker than the one of a chemical fuel engine, nowadays, ion engines are used mainly in spaces where gravities are very weak. Here, as a powerful plasma rocket to make a heavy ship get out from the gravity-sphere of the earth without relying on an atomic power rocket, an ion-velocity booster is investigated. It is a main challenge how to protect the engine wall from the melting due to collisions of ions which grow into high-energy particles.
{"title":"A Space-Flight Ship Travelling by a Plasma Rocket Engine from the Earth Ground to the Moon","authors":"Mitsuaki Nagata","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1412091","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1412091","url":null,"abstract":"Since a thrust of an ion rocket engine is much weaker than the one of a chemical fuel engine, nowadays, ion engines are used mainly in spaces where gravities are very weak. Here, as a powerful plasma rocket to make a heavy ship get out from the gravity-sphere of the earth without relying on an atomic power rocket, an ion-velocity booster is investigated. It is a main challenge how to protect the engine wall from the melting due to collisions of ions which grow into high-energy particles.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135609477","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411089
Viktor Ariel
{"title":"Elements of Time","authors":"Viktor Ariel","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411089","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411089","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"121 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135312081","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1410076
Xiaoyang Shi
We study non-equilibrium behaviors of a particle subjected to a high-frequency cutoff noise in terms of generalized Langevin equation, where the spectrum of internal noise is considered to be of the generalized Debye form. A closed solution is impossible even if the equation is linear, because the Laplace transform of the memory kernel is a multi-value function. We use a numerical method to calculate the velocity correlation function of a force-free particle and the probability of a particle passing over the top of an inverse harmonic potential. We indicate the nonergodicity of the second type, i.e., the auto-correlation function of the velocity approaches to non-stationary at large times. Applied to the barrier passage problem, we find and analyse a resonant phenomenon that the dependence of the cutoff frequency is nonmonotonic when the initial directional velocity of the particle is less than the critical value, the latter is determined by the passing probability equal to 0.5.
{"title":"Non-Stationary and Resonant Passage of a System: A High-Frequency Cutoff Noise","authors":"Xiaoyang Shi","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1410076","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1410076","url":null,"abstract":"We study non-equilibrium behaviors of a particle subjected to a high-frequency cutoff noise in terms of generalized Langevin equation, where the spectrum of internal noise is considered to be of the generalized Debye form. A closed solution is impossible even if the equation is linear, because the Laplace transform of the memory kernel is a multi-value function. We use a numerical method to calculate the velocity correlation function of a force-free particle and the probability of a particle passing over the top of an inverse harmonic potential. We indicate the nonergodicity of the second type, i.e., the auto-correlation function of the velocity approaches to non-stationary at large times. Applied to the barrier passage problem, we find and analyse a resonant phenomenon that the dependence of the cutoff frequency is nonmonotonic when the initial directional velocity of the particle is less than the critical value, the latter is determined by the passing probability equal to 0.5.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"300 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135595220","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2023.1411079
Franklin Potter
We propose that quantum entanglement occurs because the fundamental particles, such as electrons, quarks, and photons, simultaneously experience both the 4th real spatial dimension in R4 as well as the time dimension in (3 + 1)-D spacetime. Consequently, the entangled particles can never become separated in the 4th spatial dimension no matter how far they have moved apart in the other 3 spatial dimensions. Because the quark and lepton families represent specific different discrete symmetry binary subgroups of SU(2), we can establish that the quantum states of the fundamental particles are defined in 4 spatial dimensions, so there is then no need for a spacetime communication from one detector (or particle) to inform the other detector (or particle) of the physical state of the first detected entangled particle. A clever experiment needs to determine whether the fundamental particles actually experience a 4th spatial dimension, and if so, whether they experience the 4th spatial dimension as the time dimension simultaneously. Apparently, if a Casimir-like test reveals that virtual particles have a non-zero mass, there are claims that a 4th spatial dimension does not exist.
{"title":"Quantum Entanglement Could Be the Result of Leptons, Quarks and Photons Simultaneously Experiencing 4-D Space as (3 + 1)-D Spacetime","authors":"Franklin Potter","doi":"10.4236/jmp.2023.1411079","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2023.1411079","url":null,"abstract":"We propose that quantum entanglement occurs because the fundamental particles, such as electrons, quarks, and photons, simultaneously experience both the 4th real spatial dimension in R4 as well as the time dimension in (3 + 1)-D spacetime. Consequently, the entangled particles can never become separated in the 4th spatial dimension no matter how far they have moved apart in the other 3 spatial dimensions. Because the quark and lepton families represent specific different discrete symmetry binary subgroups of SU(2), we can establish that the quantum states of the fundamental particles are defined in 4 spatial dimensions, so there is then no need for a spacetime communication from one detector (or particle) to inform the other detector (or particle) of the physical state of the first detected entangled particle. A clever experiment needs to determine whether the fundamental particles actually experience a 4th spatial dimension, and if so, whether they experience the 4th spatial dimension as the time dimension simultaneously. Apparently, if a Casimir-like test reveals that virtual particles have a non-zero mass, there are claims that a 4th spatial dimension does not exist.","PeriodicalId":16352,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Modern Physics","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136305480","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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