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Evaporation: Lakes and Large Bodies of Water 蒸发:湖泊和大型水体
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-8
J. Borrelli
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引用次数: 0
Aquifers: Recharge 含水层:充电
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-3
J. Nimmo, D. Stonestrom, R. Healy
Aquifer recharge was defined by Meinzer and Heath as water that moves from the land surface or the unsaturated zone into the saturated zone. This definition excludes saturated flow between aquifers, which avoids double-accounting in large-scale studies, so it might be more precisely called ‘‘aquifer-system’’ or ‘‘saturated-zone’’ recharge. Recharge rate designates either a flux [L/T] into a specified portion of aquifer, or a flux density [L/T] into an aquifer at a point. Sources of water for recharge include precipitation that infiltrates, permanent or ephemeral surface water, irrigation, and artificial recharge ponds. Recharge may reach the aquifer directly from portions of rivers, canals, or lakes, though usually it first travels by various means through the unsaturated zone. Recharge varies considerably with time and location. Temporal variation occurs, for example, with seasonal or short-term variations in precipitation and evapotranspiration (ET). This variability is especially evident in thin unsaturated zones, where recharge may occur within a short time of infiltration. In deep unsaturated zones, recharge may be homogenized over several years so that it may occur with essentially constant flux even though fluxes at shallow depths are erratic. Spatial variation occurs with climate, topography, soils, geology, and vegetation. For example, a decrease of slope or increase of soil permeability may lead to greater infiltration and greater recharge. Many applications use a concept of recharge that is timeaveraged or areally averaged. Both the amount of infiltration and the fraction of it that becomes recharge tend to be greater with more abundant water, so the recharge process is most efficient if infiltration is concentrated in space and time. Because ET may extract most or all of the water that infiltrates, water is more likely to become recharge if it moves rapidly below the root zone. Temporal concentration occurs during storms, floods, and snowmelt, when ongoing processes such as ET are overwhelmed. Spatial concentration typically occurs in depressions and channels, where higher water contents promote rapid movement by increasing the hydraulic conductivity (K), the amount of preferential flow, and the downward driving force at a wetting front. Quantitative estimation of recharge rate contributes to the understanding of large-scale hydrologic processes. It is important for evaluating the sustainability of ground water supplies, though it does not equate with a sustainable rate of extraction. Because it represents a first approximation to the rate of solute transport to the aquifer, the recharge rate is also important to estimate contaminant fluxes and travel times from sources near the land surface. Methods for obtaining a quantitative estimate of recharge mostly require a combination of various types of data which themselves may be hard to estimate, so in general it is wise to apply multiple methods and compare their results.
Meinzer和Heath将含水层补给定义为水从陆地表面或不饱和带进入饱和带。该定义不包括含水层之间的饱和流,避免了大规模研究中的重复计算,因此可能更准确地称为“含水层系统”或“饱和区”补给。补给率表示进入含水层某一特定部分的通量[L/T],或在某一点进入含水层的通量密度[L/T]。补给水源包括渗入的降水、永久或短暂的地表水、灌溉和人工补给池。补给可以直接从部分河流、运河或湖泊到达含水层,尽管它通常首先以各种方式通过不饱和带。充电随时间和地点的不同而有很大差异。例如,降水和蒸散发(ET)的季节性或短期变化会引起时间变化。这种变异性在薄的不饱和区尤其明显,在那里,补给可能在入渗的短时间内发生。在深层非饱和带,补给可能在数年内均匀化,因此即使在浅深度的通量不稳定,补给也可能以基本恒定的通量发生。空间变化与气候、地形、土壤、地质和植被有关。例如,坡度的减小或土壤渗透性的增加可能导致更大的入渗和更大的补给。许多应用程序使用时间平均或面积平均的充值概念。水分越丰富,入渗量越大,回灌量越大,回灌过程在空间和时间上越集中,回灌过程效率越高。因为蒸散发可以吸收大部分或全部渗透的水,如果水在根区以下快速流动,水更有可能成为补给。时间集中发生在风暴、洪水和融雪期间,当正在进行的过程(如ET)不堪重负时。空间集中通常发生在洼地和河道中,在那里,较高的含水量通过增加水力传导性(K)、优先流的数量和湿润锋的向下驱动力来促进快速运动。定量估算补给速率有助于对大尺度水文过程的认识。这对于评价地下水供应的可持续性是很重要的,尽管它并不等同于可持续的采掘率。因为它代表溶质向含水层输送速率的第一个近似值,所以补给速率对于估计来自陆地表面附近来源的污染物通量和传播时间也很重要。获得充值定量估计的方法大多需要组合各种类型的数据,这些数据本身可能难以估计,因此通常明智的做法是应用多种方法并比较它们的结果。
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引用次数: 1
Transpiration: Water Use Efficiency 蒸腾:水的利用效率
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1081/E-ENRL-120010279
M. Mortlock
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引用次数: 0
Hydrology: Environmental 水文:环境
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-13
T. Boving
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引用次数: 0
Stormwaters: Management 雨水:管理
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-25
J. Clausen, Michael E. Dietz
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引用次数: 0
Eutrophication 富营养化
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-7
K. Hoagland, T. Franti
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引用次数: 0
Hydrologic Cycle 水文循环
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/noe0849396274.ch121
J. Van Brahana
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引用次数: 0
Pesticide Contamination: Surface Water 农药污染:地表水
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-24
S. Clay
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引用次数: 0
Groundwater: World Resources 地下水世界资源
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-20
Lucila Candela
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引用次数: 0
Low-Impact Development 低强度的发展
Pub Date : 2020-05-19 DOI: 10.1201/9780429441042-17
C. H. Hinman, D. Booth
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引用次数: 0
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