{"title":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols: Entrepreneurs and Computer Communications, 1968–1988","authors":"James L. Pelkey, A. Russell, Lori Robbins","doi":"10.1145/3502372","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"156 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-04-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123327161","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"List of Interviews","authors":"A. Thayer","doi":"10.2307/j.ctvc77nv5.13","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc77nv5.13","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"37 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122545098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
mous amount of work to fulfill the vision of the ARPANET’s creators. A functional network presented a conundrum: DARPA did not have charter authority to operate a network. With high demand for networking, and the growth of the network ing equipment companies documented in Chapter 4, there was a clear need for the ARPANET, or something like it, to support commercial needs. Efforts to com mercialize ARPANET technologies were not immediately successful, and networks operated by private companies met some but not all market needs. Elsewhere, research into packet-switching continued along new paths, pro pelled by committed teams of researchers in Europe and the United States. In France, Louis Pouzin led a team of researchers in a project called CYCLADES, with the goal of learning from and improving upon the experience of the ARPANET. And in the United States, Robert Kahn worked with other DARPA-funded researchers to devise methods for passing packets from the land-based ARPANET to the radiobased ALOHAnet. They soon realized that they would need a new protocol for transmitting packets, which led Kahn and his collaborator Vint Cerf to develop the Transmission Control Program (TCP) in 1973. By the mid-1970s, a proliferation of projects and protocols came from Ameri can universities, private companies like Xerox, and European research institutes— all seeking to provide the foundations for network interconnection and support robust commercial and scientific applications. Scientists and engineers working in institutions devoted to collaboration—including the International Organiza tion for Standardization and the US National Bureau of Standards—sought to use Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972–1979
{"title":"Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972–1979","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502379","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502379","url":null,"abstract":"mous amount of work to fulfill the vision of the ARPANET’s creators. A functional network presented a conundrum: DARPA did not have charter authority to operate a network. With high demand for networking, and the growth of the network ing equipment companies documented in Chapter 4, there was a clear need for the ARPANET, or something like it, to support commercial needs. Efforts to com mercialize ARPANET technologies were not immediately successful, and networks operated by private companies met some but not all market needs. Elsewhere, research into packet-switching continued along new paths, pro pelled by committed teams of researchers in Europe and the United States. In France, Louis Pouzin led a team of researchers in a project called CYCLADES, with the goal of learning from and improving upon the experience of the ARPANET. And in the United States, Robert Kahn worked with other DARPA-funded researchers to devise methods for passing packets from the land-based ARPANET to the radiobased ALOHAnet. They soon realized that they would need a new protocol for transmitting packets, which led Kahn and his collaborator Vint Cerf to develop the Transmission Control Program (TCP) in 1973. By the mid-1970s, a proliferation of projects and protocols came from Ameri can universities, private companies like Xerox, and European research institutes— all seeking to provide the foundations for network interconnection and support robust commercial and scientific applications. Scientists and engineers working in institutions devoted to collaboration—including the International Organiza tion for Standardization and the US National Bureau of Standards—sought to use Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972–1979","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132578150","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
array of networking products. Press reports routinely compared various solutions in an effort to make sense of the confusion. A key factor in the growing buzz around networking was the unexpected tsunami created by the introduction of the IBM PC in 1981, which continued to inundate the landscape of business computing. Corporate managers had seen the value in desktop computing with the popular ity of spreadsheet applications like VisiCalc for the Apple II, SuperCalc for the Osborne 1 portable computer, and Lotus 1-2-3 for the IBM PC. The success of the IBM PC rapidly accelerated computer purchasing by corporate America. As the bud gets for data processing assumed a larger percentage of total corporate spending, Management Information Systems (MIS) departments became ripe targets for net working products and services—once every corporate desktop became the home of a computer, a flood of new software applications created a demand for shared information at higher communication speeds. By 1983, the stock market was showing signs of strength after nearly two decades of lackluster performance. The government’s economic policies of the late 1970s and early 1980s were starting to have a positive effect on the economy and the ven ture capital industry. New commitments to venture funds soared to $500 million in 1980 and by 1983 they reached nearly $3.5 billion. In that year alone, venture cap ital investments exceeded $2.5 billion. 3Com president Bill Krause smiled when he Market Order: Networking, 1983–1986
{"title":"Market Order: Networking, 1983–1986","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502383","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502383","url":null,"abstract":"array of networking products. Press reports routinely compared various solutions in an effort to make sense of the confusion. A key factor in the growing buzz around networking was the unexpected tsunami created by the introduction of the IBM PC in 1981, which continued to inundate the landscape of business computing. Corporate managers had seen the value in desktop computing with the popular ity of spreadsheet applications like VisiCalc for the Apple II, SuperCalc for the Osborne 1 portable computer, and Lotus 1-2-3 for the IBM PC. The success of the IBM PC rapidly accelerated computer purchasing by corporate America. As the bud gets for data processing assumed a larger percentage of total corporate spending, Management Information Systems (MIS) departments became ripe targets for net working products and services—once every corporate desktop became the home of a computer, a flood of new software applications created a demand for shared information at higher communication speeds. By 1983, the stock market was showing signs of strength after nearly two decades of lackluster performance. The government’s economic policies of the late 1970s and early 1980s were starting to have a positive effect on the economy and the ven ture capital industry. New commitments to venture funds soared to $500 million in 1980 and by 1983 they reached nearly $3.5 billion. In that year alone, venture cap ital investments exceeded $2.5 billion. 3Com president Bill Krause smiled when he Market Order: Networking, 1983–1986","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"90 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130710963","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
5.1 Biased Long Code While the biased long code can be viewed as an encoding scheme, it is more con venient to take a combinatorial view and treat it as a weighted Kneser graph. Valid codewords correspond to certain large (in fact the largest) independent sets in this graph. Definition 5.1 For a bias parameter p ∈ (0, 1) and alphabet Σ, the vertex set of weighted Kneser graph Gp[Σ] is P(Σ), the family of all subsets of Σ. The weight of a vertex A ⊆ Σ is μp(A) = p|A|(1 − p)|Σ|−|A|. The edge set is { (A, B) | A, B ⊆ Σ, A ∩ B = φ}. For a family F ⊆ P(Σ), let μp(F ) denote its weight under μp.
虽然偏长码可以看作是一种编码方案，但从组合的角度来看，将其视为加权的Kneser图更为方便。有效码字对应于此图中某些较大的(实际上是最大的)独立集。定义5.1对于偏差参数p∈(0,1)，字母Σ，加权Kneser图Gp[Σ]的顶点集为p (Σ)，即Σ的所有子集的族。一个顶点的重量⊆Σμp (a) = p | |(1−p) |Σ|−| |。边集为{(A, B) | A, B≤Σ， A∩B = φ}。对于一个族F (Σ)，设μp(F)为其在μp下的权值。
{"title":"The Biased Long Code and Hardness of Vertex Cover","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3568031.3568037","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3568031.3568037","url":null,"abstract":"5.1 Biased Long Code While the biased long code can be viewed as an encoding scheme, it is more con venient to take a combinatorial view and treat it as a weighted Kneser graph. Valid codewords correspond to certain large (in fact the largest) independent sets in this graph. Definition 5.1 For a bias parameter p ∈ (0, 1) and alphabet Σ, the vertex set of weighted Kneser graph Gp[Σ] is P(Σ), the family of all subsets of Σ. The weight of a vertex A ⊆ Σ is μp(A) = p|A|(1 − p)|Σ|−|A|. The edge set is { (A, B) | A, B ⊆ Σ, A ∩ B = φ}. For a family F ⊆ P(Σ), let μp(F ) denote its weight under μp.","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"45 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134499931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
moon or Jimi Hendrix’s burning guitar in Monterey, the foundations of an aston ishing era of technology-based change were being forged. And as with all iconic moments, hundreds of people and decades of effort went into the changes that crystallized in public perceptions as a history-altering spectacle. The 1960s were likewise a pivotal decade for the data communications industry, even if there was little public fanfare to accompany the key developments. Throughout this book we describe market-structures—dynamic relationships between markets and pop ulations of firms that pursue similar product opportunities. During the 1960s, the market-structure for data communications slowly began to emerge, in spite of the dominance of two giant firms AT&T and IBM. The principal obstacle to the emer gence of the data communications market-structure was AT&T’s contesting the attachment of any devices not of its own, as well as the interconnection of other networks, to ‘its’ telephone network. But as we will see in this chapter, the FCC reversed its long-standing support of AT&T in 1968 and allowed independent com panies to sell equipment that connected to the public telephone network. The FCC’s decisions transformed telecommunications—clearing a path for a rush of new businesses forming around new technologies and the growing adoption of business computing. But before we get to the fateful events of 1968, and the extraor dinary events of the next two decades that are the main subject of this book, we need to begin with a brief review of some of the important decisions and events that occurred between the end of World War II and 1968. We have organized this history into five sections: the federal government and its interactions with AT&T, Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949–1968
{"title":"Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949–1968","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502375","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502375","url":null,"abstract":"moon or Jimi Hendrix’s burning guitar in Monterey, the foundations of an aston ishing era of technology-based change were being forged. And as with all iconic moments, hundreds of people and decades of effort went into the changes that crystallized in public perceptions as a history-altering spectacle. The 1960s were likewise a pivotal decade for the data communications industry, even if there was little public fanfare to accompany the key developments. Throughout this book we describe market-structures—dynamic relationships between markets and pop ulations of firms that pursue similar product opportunities. During the 1960s, the market-structure for data communications slowly began to emerge, in spite of the dominance of two giant firms AT&T and IBM. The principal obstacle to the emer gence of the data communications market-structure was AT&T’s contesting the attachment of any devices not of its own, as well as the interconnection of other networks, to ‘its’ telephone network. But as we will see in this chapter, the FCC reversed its long-standing support of AT&T in 1968 and allowed independent com panies to sell equipment that connected to the public telephone network. The FCC’s decisions transformed telecommunications—clearing a path for a rush of new businesses forming around new technologies and the growing adoption of business computing. But before we get to the fateful events of 1968, and the extraor dinary events of the next two decades that are the main subject of this book, we need to begin with a brief review of some of the important decisions and events that occurred between the end of World War II and 1968. We have organized this history into five sections: the federal government and its interactions with AT&T, Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949–1968","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"39 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129023171","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Adaptation of Wide Area Networks: Data Communications, 1979–1986","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502384","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502384","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"35 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115394187","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
budgets for information technology (IT), transforming the role of IT from a small operation to a major department with functions across the entire enterprise. Corporations needed to take two steps to leverage the full capability of LANs: first, connect all their computers to LANs, and second, interconnect their LANs into enterprise-wide networks. At the start of 1987, these enterprise networks remained more of a promise than a required capital investment. But it didn’t take long for the new start-ups of internetworking—SynOptics, Retix, Vitalink, Cisco, and Wellfleet—to ship products, and for dozens of other companies to enter the market. By the end of 1988, the third wave of computer communications— internetworking—was under way. As we have seen many times in this history of computer communications, pub lic demonstrations helped to consolidate and publicize existing capabilities while helping to identify the work that remained to be done. Three demonstrations featured the networking and internetworking capabilities of OSI: the National Computer Conference in 1984, the Autofact trade show in 1985, and the Enter prise Networking Event (ENE) in 1988. The alternative to the OSI protocols were those that had been birthed and shepherded by DARPA: TCP/IP. The US federal government had made clear their preference for networks using OSI protocols, not TCP/IP. Nevertheless, a growing band of diehards and vendors eager to market new products continued to offer solutions that leveraged the popularity of TCP/IP. They too staged a series of annual demonstrations culminating in the Interop trade show of 1988. In these demonstrations, TCP/IP proved robust and viable, even if The Emergence of Internetworking, 1985–1988
{"title":"The Emergence of Internetworking, 1985–1988","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502387","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502387","url":null,"abstract":"budgets for information technology (IT), transforming the role of IT from a small operation to a major department with functions across the entire enterprise. Corporations needed to take two steps to leverage the full capability of LANs: first, connect all their computers to LANs, and second, interconnect their LANs into enterprise-wide networks. At the start of 1987, these enterprise networks remained more of a promise than a required capital investment. But it didn’t take long for the new start-ups of internetworking—SynOptics, Retix, Vitalink, Cisco, and Wellfleet—to ship products, and for dozens of other companies to enter the market. By the end of 1988, the third wave of computer communications— internetworking—was under way. As we have seen many times in this history of computer communications, pub lic demonstrations helped to consolidate and publicize existing capabilities while helping to identify the work that remained to be done. Three demonstrations featured the networking and internetworking capabilities of OSI: the National Computer Conference in 1984, the Autofact trade show in 1985, and the Enter prise Networking Event (ENE) in 1988. The alternative to the OSI protocols were those that had been birthed and shepherded by DARPA: TCP/IP. The US federal government had made clear their preference for networks using OSI protocols, not TCP/IP. Nevertheless, a growing band of diehards and vendors eager to market new products continued to offer solutions that leveraged the popularity of TCP/IP. They too staged a series of annual demonstrations culminating in the Interop trade show of 1988. In these demonstrations, TCP/IP proved robust and viable, even if The Emergence of Internetworking, 1985–1988","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"162 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123761844","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
industry standard and quickly emerging dominant design, it also raised a bigger question: how could users combine networks into internetworks? This question vexed administrators in multiple agencies in the United States federal government who used many different tools at their disposal to hasten the emergence of the internetworking market-structure. In this chapter we focus on two agencies that proved especially influential: DARPA, within the Depart ment of Defense (DOD), and the National Bureau of Standards, within the Depart ment of Commerce.1 In previous chapters we saw these agencies flex their muscle to invest in research and development, recruit and train students and full-time staff, arrange for purchasing and procurement of computer communications prod ucts, and sponsor workshops and demonstrations. Despite the era’s prevailing rhetoric of “free markets,” these government agencies took deliberate steps to nudge internetworking markets towards maturity—with some impressive results. By the early 1980s, internetworking had become a two-horse race between the TCP/IP protocols championed by DARPA and the OSI architecture and protocols Government Support for Internetworking, 1983–1988
{"title":"Government Support for Internetworking, 1983–1988","authors":"","doi":"10.1145/3502372.3502386","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3502372.3502386","url":null,"abstract":"industry standard and quickly emerging dominant design, it also raised a bigger question: how could users combine networks into internetworks? This question vexed administrators in multiple agencies in the United States federal government who used many different tools at their disposal to hasten the emergence of the internetworking market-structure. In this chapter we focus on two agencies that proved especially influential: DARPA, within the Depart ment of Defense (DOD), and the National Bureau of Standards, within the Depart ment of Commerce.1 In previous chapters we saw these agencies flex their muscle to invest in research and development, recruit and train students and full-time staff, arrange for purchasing and procurement of computer communications prod ucts, and sponsor workshops and demonstrations. Despite the era’s prevailing rhetoric of “free markets,” these government agencies took deliberate steps to nudge internetworking markets towards maturity—with some impressive results. By the early 1980s, internetworking had become a two-horse race between the TCP/IP protocols championed by DARPA and the OSI architecture and protocols Government Support for Internetworking, 1983–1988","PeriodicalId":377190,"journal":{"name":"Circuits, Packets, and Protocols","volume":"22 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125294088","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
networking. For over a decade it co-evolved with, and finally eclipsed, the data communications market-structure before the two influenced the emergence, and evolution, of the third market-structure of computer communications: internetworking. By the end of this book, in 1988, total revenues for the three industries combined were over $5 billion. In the early 1970s, a number of pioneering engineers began to apply recent learning in the field of networking to innovate the use of networks for their employ ers’ in-house productivity, or as solutions to meet specific customer needs. But while these pioneers proved the technology could work, it would take until the end of the decade before the commercial success of networks could be validated in the market. By then, the explosion in business computing—mainframes and the increasingly popular minicomputer—had created a compelling need to con nect computers to other computers, peripherals, and terminals throughout the enterprise. Customers began making demands on their vendors for connectivity. This demand was on display in May of 1979 at the Local Area Computer Net working symposium presented by MITRE and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). The result was a watershed moment for the emerging market, which, when combined with the resurgence of venture capital, provided entrepreneurs with the right mix of opportunity and resources. Just 1 month later, in June, three of the leading networking companies, 3Com, Ungermann-Bass, and Sytek, were founded. Each differentiated to take advantage of what they saw as a unique market oppor tunity. They quickly discovered they did not have the market to themselves, as the existing data communication firms saw the same market signals and responded with products of their own. Emergence of Local Area Networks: Networking, 1976–1981
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