Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-29
Maria Pîrvu
The evolution of cyber spying technology presents new and rising dangers; coupled with the easy justification for use of the on-going terrorist crisis these dangers have now become major threats to the international security system. This article aims to provide analysis of these threats, using the new software Pegasus as a focal point of discussion. Developed by the Israeli ‘cyber-warfare’ company ‘NSO’, this spyware signals a danger not only to security but freedom of the press and journalistic integrity. This paper’s focus will centre on how this software is used for censorship rather than to combat terrorism and will examine the social and political ramifications of said use. As highlight, the case of UAE activist Ahmed Mansoor and his contemporaries who were writing against authoritarian governments will be discussed. This article will urge that strict global legislation is needed to stop the abuse of spyware as a tool of censorship.
{"title":"THE DEGRADATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND FREE PRESS THROUGH THE PEGASUS SOFTWARE IN THE ERA OF SURVEILLANCE, AS A THREAT TO INTERNATIONAL SECURITY. A DEBATE OF CIVIL LIBERTIES AND CENSORSHIP","authors":"Maria Pîrvu","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-29","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-29","url":null,"abstract":"The evolution of cyber spying technology presents new and rising dangers; coupled with the easy justification for use of the on-going terrorist crisis these dangers have now become major threats to the international security system. This article aims to provide analysis of these threats, using the new software Pegasus as a focal point of discussion. Developed by the Israeli ‘cyber-warfare’ company ‘NSO’, this spyware signals a danger not only to security but freedom of the press and journalistic integrity. This paper’s focus will centre on how this software is used for censorship rather than to combat terrorism and will examine the social and political ramifications of said use. As highlight, the case of UAE activist Ahmed Mansoor and his contemporaries who were writing against authoritarian governments will be discussed. This article will urge that strict global legislation is needed to stop the abuse of spyware as a tool of censorship.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"17 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122026021","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-27
Octavian Dacin
Special Operation Forces had started to participate in the United Nations peacekeeping operations not long ago, but the consensus on acceptability of their use in peacekeeping operations has already been reached. Present article analyzes views on SOF use in peacekeeping, as expressed by the specialist and enshrined in guidance documents of different countries, explores normative regulation formalized in mandates of respective peacekeeping operations and contemplates typical SOF tasks in peacekeeping operations as defined by the UN in “United Nations Peacekeeping Missions Military Special Forces Manual”.
{"title":"SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES IN UNITED NATIONS PEACE KEEPING OPERATIONS","authors":"Octavian Dacin","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-27","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-27","url":null,"abstract":"Special Operation Forces had started to participate in the United Nations peacekeeping operations not long ago, but the consensus on acceptability of their use in peacekeeping operations has already been reached. Present article analyzes views on SOF use in peacekeeping, as expressed by the specialist and enshrined in guidance documents of different countries, explores normative regulation formalized in mandates of respective peacekeeping operations and contemplates typical SOF tasks in peacekeeping operations as defined by the UN in “United Nations Peacekeeping Missions Military Special Forces Manual”.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"14 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127955198","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-30
Florin Diaconu
Along several millennia, sealift capabilities have played a significant role in shaping the political international arena, and the global strategic landscape. We cannot imagine, for example, a fully operational Roman Empire without a massive set of sealift capabilities, able to deploy large armies anywhere around the Mediterranean, and to bring huge amounts of Egyptian grain to Rome. The study is briefly exploring some pivotal moments in global history, when sealift has been massively present; and then it explores, with some details, the present situation of the US strategic sealift capabilities. As far as we know, the ability of the United States to use, in case of need, fully effective strategic sealift is clearly facing important problems and shortages, and this feature of the US national power might generate a lot of problems in many future scenarios, massively impacting strategic evolutions on the World Ocean, in Europe, and mainly in the Asia-Pacific.
{"title":"STRATEGIC SEALIFT CAPABILITIES: THE SPECIAL CASE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA","authors":"Florin Diaconu","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-30","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-30","url":null,"abstract":"Along several millennia, sealift capabilities have played a significant role in shaping the political international arena, and the global strategic landscape. We cannot imagine, for example, a fully operational Roman Empire without a massive set of sealift capabilities, able to deploy large armies anywhere around the Mediterranean, and to bring huge amounts of Egyptian grain to Rome. The study is briefly exploring some pivotal moments in global history, when sealift has been massively present; and then it explores, with some details, the present situation of the US strategic sealift capabilities. As far as we know, the ability of the United States to use, in case of need, fully effective strategic sealift is clearly facing important problems and shortages, and this feature of the US national power might generate a lot of problems in many future scenarios, massively impacting strategic evolutions on the World Ocean, in Europe, and mainly in the Asia-Pacific.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"46 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127772159","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-31
Ioana-Flavia Drăgoianu
Over the course of millennia power laid in the hands of generals and rulers and their ability to act – but so did their downfalls. Thus, the first part of this presentation will be focused on the importance of strategy and tactics in any kind of rule. Furthermore, Japanese warfare will be anatomized – how the samurai became elite warriors, weaponry, the transition of samurai warfare during the Sengoku Period and its importance to the fight for supremacy between the Japanese Clans. The goal of this paper is to unravel the conundrums of The Age of War from a political frame of reference, under three powerful influences – Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. The discussion will then shift towards analyzing the impetus that put in motion their plans and the ways they achieved power, their brilliant strategies and their undoing, whilst using the knowledge regarding Political Science and International Relations to determine the political legacy of their actions.
{"title":"SEARCHING FOR POLITICAL EFFECTIVENESS: THE STRATEGIES BEHIND THE MILITARY UNIFICATION OF JAPAN","authors":"Ioana-Flavia Drăgoianu","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-31","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-31","url":null,"abstract":"Over the course of millennia power laid in the hands of generals and rulers and their ability to act – but so did their downfalls. Thus, the first part of this presentation will be focused on the importance of strategy and tactics in any kind of rule. Furthermore, Japanese warfare will be anatomized – how the samurai became elite warriors, weaponry, the transition of samurai warfare during the Sengoku Period and its importance to the fight for supremacy between the Japanese Clans. The goal of this paper is to unravel the conundrums of The Age of War from a political frame of reference, under three powerful influences – Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. The discussion will then shift towards analyzing the impetus that put in motion their plans and the ways they achieved power, their brilliant strategies and their undoing, whilst using the knowledge regarding Political Science and International Relations to determine the political legacy of their actions.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126572684","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-26
Mara Sofia Crăciunescu
Even though the Cold War ended 30 years ago, the Russian Federation and the United States of America continue the competition for power through different means and by using several instruments. The Syrian war is one of the longest and complex events in which the two states have recently exposed their capabilities. On the one hand, the Russian Federation found the Syrian war as an opportunity to improve its economy, extend its military influence and gain more allies by supporting Syrian regime and situating as a counterweight to USA. On the other hand, the United States of America fought to maintain its economic gains, strategic coalitions and limit Iran power in the region, using as motif the establishment of democracy and counterterrorism. All of these represented the most important assets of each state towards increasing their authority outside their borders and consolidating their power status in the last 6 years.
{"title":"THE GREAT POWER COMPETITION BETWEEN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN THE SYRIAN WAR 2015-2020","authors":"Mara Sofia Crăciunescu","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-26","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-26","url":null,"abstract":"Even though the Cold War ended 30 years ago, the Russian Federation and the United States of America continue the competition for power through different means and by using several instruments. The Syrian war is one of the longest and complex events in which the two states have recently exposed their capabilities. On the one hand, the Russian Federation found the Syrian war as an opportunity to improve its economy, extend its military influence and gain more allies by supporting Syrian regime and situating as a counterweight to USA. On the other hand, the United States of America fought to maintain its economic gains, strategic coalitions and limit Iran power in the region, using as motif the establishment of democracy and counterterrorism. All of these represented the most important assets of each state towards increasing their authority outside their borders and consolidating their power status in the last 6 years.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"60 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133196468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-10DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-28
Anamaria Manole
Catalonia’s national identity has its roots in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times. In the 19th century, the Catalonian search for independence was encouraged by romantic and revolutionary concepts spread across Europe. After the First World War, we can notice a significant increase of political actions as regards the Catalonian nationalists-separatists, including violent episodes and riots in main cities. As for the contemporary period, the financial crisis in 2007-2008 acted as a new booster for nationalist-separatist ideas leading eventually to referendums in 2009 and also in 2017. The present study is exploring in a historical register the process of Catalonian’s independence. In doing so, I intend to identify and examine the Catalan’s main reasons in claiming complete political independence. The study tackles particularly recent interviews presenting opinions of several Catalonian citizens, some of them with political or administrative responsibilities, concerning regional independence and its potential consequences.
{"title":"SEPARATISM TODAY: THE GEOPOLITICALLY SIGNIFICANT CASE OF CATALONIA","authors":"Anamaria Manole","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-28","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-28","url":null,"abstract":"Catalonia’s national identity has its roots in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times. In the 19th century, the Catalonian search for independence was encouraged by romantic and revolutionary concepts spread across Europe. After the First World War, we can notice a significant increase of political actions as regards the Catalonian nationalists-separatists, including violent episodes and riots in main cities. As for the contemporary period, the financial crisis in 2007-2008 acted as a new booster for nationalist-separatist ideas leading eventually to referendums in 2009 and also in 2017. The present study is exploring in a historical register the process of Catalonian’s independence. In doing so, I intend to identify and examine the Catalan’s main reasons in claiming complete political independence. The study tackles particularly recent interviews presenting opinions of several Catalonian citizens, some of them with political or administrative responsibilities, concerning regional independence and its potential consequences.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133711234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-09DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-14
Raul Nistor
The recent actions of the Russian Federation have raised major concerns among the Euro-Atlantic community. At a time when the security environment we face is becoming increasingly complex, at the NATO Summit in Brussels in 2021, member states reaffirmed their unity, solidarity, cohesion and agreement to open a new chapter in the transatlantic relations. At the same time, NATO remains the foundation of collective security and the essential forum for security consultations and decisions between allies. Romania will also play an extremely important role on NATO's vulnerable south-eastern flank, in the face of the Russian Federation's offensive. Thus, we aim to evaluate the place and role that Romania has as a contributing member of the alliance in ensuring security.
{"title":"ROMANIA IN THE NEW SECURITY ENVIRONMENT AFTER THE 2021 BRUSSELS SUMMIT","authors":"Raul Nistor","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-14","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-14","url":null,"abstract":"The recent actions of the Russian Federation have raised major concerns among the Euro-Atlantic community. At a time when the security environment we face is becoming increasingly complex, at the NATO Summit in Brussels in 2021, member states reaffirmed their unity, solidarity, cohesion and agreement to open a new chapter in the transatlantic relations. At the same time, NATO remains the foundation of collective security and the essential forum for security consultations and decisions between allies. Romania will also play an extremely important role on NATO's vulnerable south-eastern flank, in the face of the Russian Federation's offensive. Thus, we aim to evaluate the place and role that Romania has as a contributing member of the alliance in ensuring security.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"42 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121225500","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-09DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-12
I. Anghel
Given the major shift in perception, communication and identity triggered by the pandemic over the last two years, the use of digital tools to guide patterns of association, mobilization and action seems more powerful than ever. Although Fake News has been making headlines since the early days of globalization, its later developments revealed interesting conjectures on topics such as the rise of non-state hegemons, ascent of digital diasporas, deterritorialization, or post-politics. In this context, the distances between fake news and reality tend to be blurred by the intervention of interpretive bias, while the role of public’s beliefs, latent iconography and power mythology becomes more critical. Following this argument, the paper looks at some of the emerging trends in fake news and master narratives in digital media, also tackling the implications triggered by their potential use in the context of hybrid confrontations.
{"title":"FROM FAKE NEWS TO REAL NEWS WITH A TWIST: DISINFORMATION AND COVID-19 NARRATIVES","authors":"I. Anghel","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-12","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-12","url":null,"abstract":"Given the major shift in perception, communication and identity triggered by the pandemic over the last two years, the use of digital tools to guide patterns of association, mobilization and action seems more powerful than ever. Although Fake News has been making headlines since the early days of globalization, its later developments revealed interesting conjectures on topics such as the rise of non-state hegemons, ascent of digital diasporas, deterritorialization, or post-politics. In this context, the distances between fake news and reality tend to be blurred by the intervention of interpretive bias, while the role of public’s beliefs, latent iconography and power mythology becomes more critical. Following this argument, the paper looks at some of the emerging trends in fake news and master narratives in digital media, also tackling the implications triggered by their potential use in the context of hybrid confrontations.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"139 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124887225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-09DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-13
Delia-Mihaela Marinescu
Respect for equal opportunities and control of migration are the basis for the development of any democratic society, the magnitude of these phenomena and their importance on the state balance determining an analysis consistent with the very identity of states and the European Union as a whole, especially as they can influence the values and cohesion of a state. The objective of the research is to present the challenges and vulnerabilities identified in relation to equal opportunities and migration from the perspective of education, their impact on the environment, but also the challenges that may arise in the current global context, caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. The article starts from the exposition of the importance of equal opportunities and migration in a complex security environment with rapid evolutions and significant implications on multiple levels of social, economic, political and security life, and the main conclusion is that at EU level joint efforts must be made to adopt and respect unitary measures to ensure respect for human rights, in order to ensure security.
{"title":"CHALLENGES AND VULNERABILITIES OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND MIGRATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION","authors":"Delia-Mihaela Marinescu","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-13","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-13","url":null,"abstract":"Respect for equal opportunities and control of migration are the basis for the development of any democratic society, the magnitude of these phenomena and their importance on the state balance determining an analysis consistent with the very identity of states and the European Union as a whole, especially as they can influence the values and cohesion of a state. The objective of the research is to present the challenges and vulnerabilities identified in relation to equal opportunities and migration from the perspective of education, their impact on the environment, but also the challenges that may arise in the current global context, caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. The article starts from the exposition of the importance of equal opportunities and migration in a complex security environment with rapid evolutions and significant implications on multiple levels of social, economic, political and security life, and the main conclusion is that at EU level joint efforts must be made to adopt and respect unitary measures to ensure respect for human rights, in order to ensure security.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"122 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124147096","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-09DOI: 10.53477/2668-6511-22-22
F. Baxa, Aleš Tesař
There is an increasing number of non-state actors acting recently as well as present armed conflicts aside of state actors when non-state actors being endowed with more economic and “military” power than smaller states what enable them a broad spectrum of activities in all domains explored by human civilisation. Nowadays even an inner space belongs already to activities of non-state actors. Cyber space is an arena of these actors since the beginning of its exploitation. Putting together, it is necessary to expect a growing number of frictions among various state and non-state actors having their own interests in the same areas and time. These frictions may lead to conflicts, even armed conflicts being presented by other activities than engagement of traditional armed forces against property or interests of both, state or non-state actors with an aim to gain some advantage. Actions in an inner space or in a cyber space could be more serious than small scale armed conflict. These actions might be considered as simple criminal or terroristic acts or as casus belli, like consequences of the 11th September 2001 situation. Who is in charge of judging a nature of the offensive actions between two non-state actors? What state is authorised to declare “war against terrorism” (or criminality?) towards one or all belling parties, which are non-state actors? This situation can arise more questions and this article has an ambition to elaborate some of them to address new challenges in the field of future state defence.
{"title":"NEW CHALLENGES FOR A FUTURE STATE DEFENCE","authors":"F. Baxa, Aleš Tesař","doi":"10.53477/2668-6511-22-22","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.53477/2668-6511-22-22","url":null,"abstract":"There is an increasing number of non-state actors acting recently as well as present armed conflicts aside of state actors when non-state actors being endowed with more economic and “military” power than smaller states what enable them a broad spectrum of activities in all domains explored by human civilisation. Nowadays even an inner space belongs already to activities of non-state actors. Cyber space is an arena of these actors since the beginning of its exploitation. Putting together, it is necessary to expect a growing number of frictions among various state and non-state actors having their own interests in the same areas and time. These frictions may lead to conflicts, even armed conflicts being presented by other activities than engagement of traditional armed forces against property or interests of both, state or non-state actors with an aim to gain some advantage. Actions in an inner space or in a cyber space could be more serious than small scale armed conflict. These actions might be considered as simple criminal or terroristic acts or as casus belli, like consequences of the 11th September 2001 situation. Who is in charge of judging a nature of the offensive actions between two non-state actors? What state is authorised to declare “war against terrorism” (or criminality?) towards one or all belling parties, which are non-state actors? This situation can arise more questions and this article has an ambition to elaborate some of them to address new challenges in the field of future state defence.","PeriodicalId":379803,"journal":{"name":"STRATEGIES XXI: The Complex and Dynamic Nature of the Security Environment","volume":"433 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-02-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132387504","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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