Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulae are rare, spinal vascular malformations that commonly present with progressive myelopathy in a specific demographic and are treatable with surgery (preferred) and/or endovascular embolization. PubMed and Google Scholar were searched with terms including but not limited to "spinal dural arteriovenous fistula", "imaging", "management" "surgery vs embolization", "outcomes", "pathogenesis" to find relevant studies, including emerging research. The purpose of this literature review is to highlight presentation, imaging characteristics, management strategies, pathophysiology, and future directions for these rare but distinct entities.
Arrestins are a small family of versatile regulators of cell signaling. Arrestins regulate signaling and trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors, regulate and direct to particular subcellular compartments numerous protein kinases, ubiquitin ligases, etc. Three out of four arrestin subtypes expressed in vertebrates self-associate, each forming oligomers of a distinct size and shape. While the structures of the solution oligomers of arrestin-1, -2, and -3 have been elucidated, no function specific for the oligomeric form of either of these three subtypes has been identified thus far. Considering how multi-functional average-sized (~45 kDa) arrestin proteins were found to be, it appears likely that certain functions are predominantly or exclusively fulfilled by monomeric and oligomeric forms of each subtype.
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