Acta physiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum最新文献

This paper summarizes experiments concerned with the functional consequences of mutations in cytoplasmic regions of the alpha 1 subunit of the Na,K-ATPase, in particular the amino terminus, the first cytoplasmic loop between transmembrane segments M2 and M3, and the major cytoplasmic loop between M4 and M5. In the first mutation (alpha 1M32), 32 residues were removed from the N-terminus. The second mutation (E233K) was in the putative beta strand of M2-M3 loop and the third, comprised the replacement of the amino terminal half of loop M4-M5 of the Na,K-ATPase with the homologous segment (residues 356-519) of the gastric H,K-ATPase. The first two mutations, either separately or in combination (alpha 1M32E233K), shift the equilibrium between the major conformational states of the enzyme, E1 and E2, in favor of E1 as manifested by increased apparent affinity for ATP, lower catalytic turnover, and decreased sensitivity to inhibition by vanadate. The striking changes observed with alpha 1M32E233K suggests interactions between the N-terminus, the beta-strand in the M2-M3 loop and the catalytic phosphorylation site. The behavior of these mutants contrasts with that of least one mutant involving substitution of a residue in the putative cation binding pocket, namely S775A in the fifth transmembrane segment (Arguello, J.M., & Lingrel, J. B. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 22764-22771, 1995). Although its K+/ATP antagonism resembles that of the foregoing cytoplasmic mutants, its vanadate sensitivity is unaltered suggesting that changes in apparent affinity for ATP are secondary to changes in K+ ligation. The question of cation selectivity, in particular that of Na+ versus protons, has been addressed in structure/function analysis of a cytoplasmic chimera involving the M4-M5 loop. Transport studies performed in the presence or absence of Na+ and at low versus high pH indicate a marked alteration in cation affinity and/or selectivity. This results suggests coupling of an alteration in the large M4-M5 cytoplasmic domain to cation binding in, presumably, the juxtapositioned transmembrane domain.

Most of the residues associated with cation coordination seem to reside within transmembrane segments of the alpha-subunit of the Na,K-ATPase, whereas amino acids which appear to be involved in the coordination of ATP are found in the major cytoplasmic loop between transmembrane segments M4 and M5 (see Lingrel & Kuntzweiler, 1994; Lutsenko & Kaplan, 1995). The coupling of the two functions of cation transport and ATP hydrolysis involved in the active transport of Na and K ions must involve interactions between these two structural units. This paper summarizes recent experimental results and conclusions of studies on the renal Na,K-ATPase which have employed controlled proteolysis in the presence of physiological ligands, chemical modification with a range of reagents and a variety of functional assays. The data provide evidence for movements between specific transmembrane segments associated with cation-binding conformations and coupled changes which take place in the ATP binding domain. The binding of different cations in the cation-binding domain is sensed in the ATP binding domain and manifested as a change in reactivity. This occurs at amino acid residues which are widely spaced in primary structure. It is apparent that structural changes are transmitted through much of the ATP-binding domain as a consequence of the occupancy of the cation-binding domain. We also provide evidence that both the number and identity of cations bound are also sensed in the ATP-binding domain.

The ATP synthase F1F0 is the smallest molecular motor yet studied. ATP hydrolysis drives the rotary motion of the primary stalk subunits gamma and epsilon relative to the alpha 3 beta 3 part of F1. Evidence is reviewed to show that the delta and b subunits provide a second stalk that can act as a stator to facilitate these rotational movements.

Alanine-scanning mutagenesis of all amino acids in transmembrane helices M4, M5, M6 and M8, which contain known Ca2+ binding residues in the Ca(2+)-ATPase of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum, revealed patches of mutation-sensitivity in M4, M5 and M6, but in M8. A six-residue motif, (E/D)GLPA(T/V), in M4 and M6 and its counterpart in M5 were highlighted by mutagenesis. Site-directed disulfide mapping of helices M4 and M6 demonstrated that these transmembrane helices associate as a right-handed coiled-coil. This structural information, combined with the earlier analysis of the association of each Ca2+ binding residue with either Ca2+ binding site I or site II, permitted the development of a "side-by-side" model for the two Ca2+ binding sites in the Ca(2+)-ATPase. In about half of Brody disease families, mutations create stop codons which delete all or part of the Ca2+ binding and translocation domain, resulting in loss of SERCA1 function and muscle disease.

This work evaluates the results of measurements of equilibrium binding of ATP and cations in lethal or partially active mutations of Na,K-ATPase that were expressed at high yield in yeast cells. ATP binding studies allowed estimation of the expense in free energy required to position the gamma-phosphate in proximity of the carboxylate groups of the phosphorylated residue Asp369 and the role of this residue in governing long range E1-E2 transitions. An arginine residue (Arg546) appearing to be involved in ATP binding has been identified. Wild type yeast enzyme was capable of occluding two T1(+)-ions per ouabain binding site or alpha 1 beta 1 unit with high apparent affinity (Kd(T1+) = 7 +/- 2 microM), like the purified Na,K-ATPase from pig kidney. The substitutions to Glu327(Gln,Asp), Asp804(Asn,Glu), Asp808(Asn,Glu) and Glu779(Asp) completely abolished occlusion or severely reduced the affinity for T1+ ions. The substitution of Glu779 for Gln reduced the occlusion capacity to one T1+ ion per alpha 1 beta 1 unit with a 3-fold decrease of the apparent affinity for the ion (Kd(T1+) = 24 +/- 8 mM). These carboxylate groups in transmembrane segments 4, 5, and 6 therefore appear to be essential for high affinity occlusion of K(+)-ions.

Our studies have concentrated on two aspects of the Na,K-ATPase, the first relates to the identification of amino acids involved in binding Na+ and K+ during the catalytic cycle and the second involves defining how cardiac glycosides inhibit the enzyme. To date, three amino acids, Ser775, Asp804 and Asp808, all located in transmembrane regions five and six, have been shown to play a major role in K+ binding. These findings are based on site directed mutagenesis and expression studies. In order to understand how cardiac glycosides interact with the Na,K-ATPase, studies again involving mutagenesis coupled with expression have been used. More specifically, amino acid residues have been substituted in an ouabain sensitive alpha subunit using random mutagenesis, and the ability of the resulting enzyme to confer resistance to ouabain sensitive cells was determined. Interestingly, the amino acids of the alpha subunit which alter ouabain sensitivity cluster in two major regions, one comprised of the first and second transmembrane spanning domains and the extracellular loop joining them, and the second formed by the extracellular halves of transmembrane regions four, five, six and seven. As noted above, transmembrane regions five and six also contain the three amino acid residues Ser775, Asp804 and Asp808 which play a key role in cation transport, possibly binding K+. Thus, it is reasonable to propose that cardiac glycosides bind to two sites, the N- terminal region and the central region which contains the cation binding sites. Cardiac glycoside binding to the center region may lock the cation transport region into a configuration such that the enzyme cannot go through the conformational change required for ion transport.

Escherichia coli ATP synthase has eight subunits and functions through transmission of conformational changes between subunits. Extensive mutational analyses identified essential residues for catalysis and conformation transmission. Pseudorevertant studies revealed that beta/alpha and beta/gamma subunits interactions are important for the energy coupling between catalysis and H+ translocation. In this article, we discuss mechanism of catalysis and energy coupling based on our recent mutation studies.

Experiments with purified P-glycoprotein (Pgp) reconstituted into proteoliposomes have conclusively demonstrated that Pgp is an ATP-dependent drug transporter. Detailed biochemical analyses of drug transport by Pgp are beginning to yield a clearer picture of its mechanism. Working with Pgp-rich plasma membrane vesicles from CHRB30 cells, we have recently clarified several aspects of the drug transport mechanism. A major question about drug transport by Pgp is how it can recognize a vast array of unrelated chemical compounds as substrates. The substrate Hoechst 33342 is fluorescent in the lipid bilayer but not in aqueous solution. This property enabled us to show that Pgp transports Hoechst 33342 out of the lipid bilayer, not the aqueous phase. Because Hoechst 33342, like all Pgp substrates, is lipophilic its concentration in the bilayer greatly exceeds its concentration in the aqueous medium. High local substrate concentrations may allow for broad substrate recognition by one or more relatively low affinity binding site(s) within the lipid bilayer. Another fundamental question about Pgp is the number of drug binding sites it possesses. We have found evidence for at least two sites for drug binding and transport that interact in a positively cooperative manner. Initial rates of transport of two Pgp substrates, Hoechst 33342 and Rhodamine 123 by ChRB30 plasma membrane vesicles were measured. Each dye stimulated transport of the other. Additionally, colchicine stimulated Rhodamine 123 transport and inhibited Hoechst 33342 transport. Anthracyclines such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin had the reverse effect. Vinblastine, etoposide, and actinomycin D inhibited transport of both dyes. We interpret these results as follows. One site (R) preferentially recognizes Rhodamine 123, doxorubicin and daunorubicin. The other site (H) preferentially recognizes Hoechst 33342 and colchicine. Vinblastine, actinomycin D, and etoposide interact equally with both sites. Binding of drug at the R site stimulates transport of Hoechst 33342 by the H site and binding of drug at the H site stimulates transport of Rhodamine 123 by the R site. The existence of two drug binding sites on Pgp with different specificities is another way in which Pgp may expand the range of substrates it can transport. A third essential detail of the drug transport mechanism of Pgp is the ratio of substrate molecules transported per ATP hydrolyzed. By comparing the initial rate of Rhodamine 123 transport with the rate of ATP hydrolysis at saturating Rhodamine 123 concentration, we found that, under suitable conditions, Pgp is capable of transporting one Rhodamine 123 molecule per ATP molecule hydrolyzed.