Veterinary Vaccine最新文献

{"title":"Comprehensive immunoinformatics approach for developing a multi-epitope subunit vaccine against lumpy skin disease","authors":"Swati Rani ,&nbsp;Mehnaj Khatoon ,&nbsp;Shruti Pyasi ,&nbsp;Bajarang Vasant Kunbhar ,&nbsp;SS Patil ,&nbsp;NN Barman ,&nbsp;Rajan Kumar Pandey ,&nbsp;KP Suresh","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100146","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100146","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is an emerging transboundary pathogen associated with lumpy skin disease (LSD). Recent outbreaks of LSDV have now been reported from previously unaffected regions, including the Indian subcontinent. Rapid transmission with high morbidity and mortality, enormously impacts the bovine species, resulting in devastating economic consequences on the livestock sector. Therefore, it necessitates expedited, appropriate attention to LSDV prophylaxis and control. Various LSDV suboptimal vaccines are prevailing that range in effectiveness, efficacy, safety, and side effects. Therefore, by utilizing the immunoinformatics approach mainly, a multi-epitope vaccine candidate was designed. To achieve this, conserved regions of three key LSDV proteins GPCR, P32, and RPO30 were first identified from complete Indian LSDV genomes. From these conserved segments, epitope mapping was performed, resulting in the selection of 16 high-affinity cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, 14 helper T lymphocyte (HTL) epitopes with interferon-inducing potential, and 7 linear B-cell epitopes. Furthermore, each of these epitopes was rigorously evaluated and confirmed to be antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-toxic. Collectively, the selected epitopes demonstrated broad predicted coverage across bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA) alleles, thereby ensuring the potential for a wide-ranging immune response. To improve stability, folding, and immunogenicity, these epitopes were combined into a 590-amino-acid construct with the addition of the β-defensin-3 adjuvant and appropriate linkers. Moreover, the resultant construct's stability, solubility, and robust antigenic potential were validated by physicochemical profiling, confirming its suitability as a promising vaccine candidate. Lastly, molecular docking and simulation analyses demonstrated strong binding to bovine TLR4, confirming the construct’s structural stability and compactness. Codon optimization and <em>in silico</em> cloning into the pET28a(+) vector indicated feasibility for high-yield expression and efficient purification in <em>Escherichia coli</em>. These findings present the first conserved-region-based LSDV MEV construct tailored for Indian and regional viral strains. This design offers broad immune coverage, favourable biophysical properties, and strong receptor engagement, indicating its potential as an effective vaccine candidate. Future <em>in vitro</em> and in vivo validation will be critical to confirm immunogenicity, safety, and protective efficacy, with potential translational application for large-scale livestock immunization programs across LSDV-endemic regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 4","pages":"Article 100146"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145364701","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toward the Development of a Live Attenuated Vaccine: Construction and Evaluation of a Salmonella Enteritidis Mutant Strain","authors":"Feng Guan ,&nbsp;Yishuo Li ,&nbsp;Xiaohan Sun ,&nbsp;An Zhang ,&nbsp;Hao Gong ,&nbsp;Guijuan Hao ,&nbsp;Fangkun Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100145","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100145","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study developed a genetically attenuated <em>Salmonella enteritidis</em> (<em>S. enteritidis</em>) strain, designated as SD01ΔMg (deficient in asd, crp, rfaL, rffG, and rfbB), to enhance vaccine safety while maintaining immunogenicity. The virulence of the mutant strain was evaluated by determining the median lethal dose (LD₅₀). The deletions significantly diminished the virulence, as evidenced by a higher LD₅₀ in chicks, reduced proliferation in HeLa and RAW264.7 cells (<em>p</em> &lt; 0.01), and reduced colonization in chick organs, with no detectable bacteria by day 11 post-inoculation. The strain also exhibited nutritional dependency, with an inability to survive without DAP nutrients. Immunologically, SD01ΔMg induced robust humoral (IgG), mucosal (IgA), and cellular (IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ, TNF-α) immune responses post-vaccination comparable to wild-type and commercial vaccine strains. The animal infection test showed that gene deletion could lead to a significant decrease in the virulence of <em>S. enteritidis</em> in chicks, with an approximately 10 times higher LD₅₀ for chicks, and it demonstrated significantly lower colonization in chick tissues and organs. A toxicity protection experiment on one-day-old chicks demonstrated 80 % protection against high-dose wild <em>Salmonella</em> infection and organ damage mitigation. The findings confirm that targeted gene deletions effectively attenuate virulence without compromising immunogenicity. Collectively, our results underscore the strong potential of the SD01ΔMg strain for further development into a safe and efficacious live attenuated vaccine against <em>S. Enteritidis</em> infection.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 4","pages":"Article 100145"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145190350","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Immunogenicity of a recombinant vaccine against Lawsonia intracellularis in mice","authors":"Neida Lucia Conrad ,&nbsp;Vitória Sequeira Gonçalves Zorzi ,&nbsp;Ilana Mazzoleni ,&nbsp;Ana Vitória Costa ,&nbsp;Renan Eugênio Araújo Piraine ,&nbsp;Fábio Pereira Leivas Leite","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100132","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100132","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Lawsonia intracellularis</em> is the cause of proliferative enteropathy (PE), which is highly prevalent in swine, causing substantial economic losses to the sector. The available PE vaccines have protection-related limitations. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the ability of <em>L. intracellularis</em> recombinant protein, fused with tetanus toxin T helper (TT-Th) carrier molecule, to stimulate a specific immune response in a mouse experimental model. rLiTT expression was performed in <em>Escherichia coli</em> BL21 Star™ (DE3) cells, evaluated by SDS-PAGE, and confirmed by Western blot using a monoclonal anti-His antibody, showing a band of 18 kDa size, also the rLiTT was recognized by sera from naturally infected pigs, vaccinated pigs, and rLiTT vaccinated mice, showing its antigenicity. Specific antibodies (IgG, IgM, and IgA) against rLiTT were detected after the prime vaccine dose in mice immunized with rLiTT adsorbed on aluminum hydroxide (rLiTT/AH). The upregulation of <em>NFkB, IL4, IL12</em>, and <em>IFN-y</em> cytokine genes was evaluated in vaccinated mice splenocytes and peritoneal macrophages to assess the cell response. Thus, the experimental vaccine shows promising results to be tested in pigs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 3","pages":"Article 100132"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144653824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Isolation and molecular characterization of antibiotic resistance determinants amongst Klebsiella quasipneumoniae recovered from poultry farm: an eco-health implication","authors":"J.P. Ebhonu ,&nbsp;B.E. Igere ,&nbsp;E.O. Odjadjare ,&nbsp;C.I. Igeleke","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100133","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100133","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Klebsiella</em> species belong to a group of well-studied human pathogen with emerging global reports on antimicrobial resistance and hyper-virulent clones. Its occurrence has been reported with high abundance in diverse niches (environmental nexus) including poultry farm and may constitute a reservoir of genetic elements and strains transmission. Its hyper-virulent character has aroused public health concern which necessitates study. The study investigates isolation and molecular characterization of antibiotic resistance determinants amongst <em>klebsiella sp</em> recovered from poultry farm and their potential eco-health implications. Samples were collected from poultry farms including Ugbor (poultry A), Sapele road nexus (poultry B), Ekenwan region (poultry C) and Evboriaria region (poultry D) between August and October 2020. Recovered isolates were analysed using standard microbiological, veterinary antibiotic susceptibility testing (CLSI-VAST) standard guideline and molecular biology techniques. Observed results showed that the mean total heterotrophic bacterial counts for feeds ranged from 18.0 × 10⁵ ± 3.04 (poultry C) to 28.2 × 10⁵ ± 1.55 cfu/g (poultry B) while <em>Shigella-Salmonella</em> counts ranged from 2.32 × 10³ ± 0.84 (Poultry C) to 8.30 × 10³ ± 1.27 cfu/g (poultry A). The mean total heterotrophic bacterial counts for water-samples ranged from 0.85 × 10⁵ ± 0.49 (poultry A) to 1.85 × 10⁵ ± 0.35 cfu/ml (poultry B). The mean total heterotrophic counts for poultry dung ranged from 11.9 × 10⁵ ± 2.96 (poultry C) to 36.4 ± 4.17 cfu/g (poultry B). Following the AST screening, it was revealed that all isolates recovered were resistant to Ceftazidime, Cefixime and Cefuroxime with an apparent resistance to Gentamicin, Augumentin, Ciprofloxacin and Ofloxacin and 100 % susceptible to Nitrofurantoin. The 16S rRNA sequencing analysis showed 100 % similarity of two strains as <em>Klebsiella quasipneumoniae</em> implicating the poultry farm as potential dissemination hub for such hyper-virulent and multiple-antibiotic-resistant (MAR) phenotype and genotype in the environment which may serve as cross-contamination subjects of MAR strains during processing and distribution of products.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 3","pages":"Article 100133"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144670420","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CD205-targeted bispecific nanobody enhances antigen presentation and immune responses in FMDV","authors":"Li Yang ,&nbsp;Xin Sun ,&nbsp;Luping Du ,&nbsp;Zizheng Cai ,&nbsp;Liting Hou ,&nbsp;Zhu Qin ,&nbsp;Jin Chen ,&nbsp;Yu Lu ,&nbsp;Xiuli Feng ,&nbsp;Ivan Campeotto ,&nbsp;Qisheng Zheng ,&nbsp;Haiwei Cheng","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100131","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100131","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that play a pivotal role in bridging innate and adaptive immunity, making them a central focus in vaccine development. As a C-type lectin receptor expressed on cDC1 and cDC2 subsets, CD205 facilitates receptor-mediated endocytosis, enabling antigen presentation through both MHC class I and class II pathways, which are critical for activating cytotoxic and helper T cells. In this study, we introduced a CD205-targeted bispecific nanobody (BiNb-CD205/FMDV) as a novel platform for enhancing antigen delivery and immune activation of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in pigs. In vitro experiments demonstrated that BiNb-CD205/FMDV could bind efficiently to porcine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) and show a strong colocalization with acidic organelles such as lysosome, indicating significantly enhancing antigen uptake and effective processing. In vivo immunization results revealed Nb4-Nb205 was effective at enhancing LPB-specific antibody titers, inducing enhanced CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses. Elevated cytokine levels, including IFN-γ and IL-4 further supported robust immune activation, indicating a balanced Th1/Th2 response. Our results provide preliminary evidence for the feasibility of CD205-targeted bispecific nanobody platforms in enhancing antigen presentation and immune responses. This highlights the potential to expand targeted delivery to the field of animal epidemic diseases and provides a reference for the general application of nanotechnology in viral diseases.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 3","pages":"Article 100131"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144623431","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vaccination protocols according to World Small Animal Veterinary Association guidelines: a critical review of its implementation in Brazil","authors":"Amanda de Jesus Fonseca,&nbsp;Jordana Dantas Rodrigues Reis,&nbsp;Marcus Vinicius de Aragão Batista","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100120","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100120","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Vaccines are an important tool to help control and eradicate human and animal diseases worldwide. Given the complexity and unpredictability of immune responses in certain situations, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) published guidelines to improve immunization of small animals. Therefore, this review aims to discuss these guidelines, which guide the three-yearly revaccination in small animals, as opposed to the annual booster, use of monovalent vaccines, and replacement of revaccination with serological tests, when possible, in addition to suggesting changes to the vaccination schedule for puppies. By reviewing articles and publications on small animal vaccination, the rationale for the guidelines was discussed. Considering the social and economic divergences between developed countries, where the guidelines are currently applied, and emerging and underdeveloped countries, the difficulties of the guidelines’ implementation in Brazil were assessed. The guidelines have current foundations, and vaccinating with multipurpose vaccines more frequently may increase the chances of adverse reactions in small animals. However, the country still presents difficulties in implementing the guidelines in their entirety, in addition to the challenges involving abandoned animals, the unavailability of monovalent vaccines and serological tests accessible to the poorest population limits the adherence of guardians and professionals to the WSAVA guidelines.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 2","pages":"Article 100120"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307774","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of a baculovirus-derived chimeric virus-like particles against QX-type avian infectious bronchitis and H9N2 avian influenza","authors":"Bingchen Qiao ,&nbsp;Qi Meng ,&nbsp;Ni Zhao ,&nbsp;Zihe Gao ,&nbsp;Yusen Tian ,&nbsp;Xifeng Hu ,&nbsp;Chenfeng Jiang ,&nbsp;Xiaofei Song ,&nbsp;Jihui Ping","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100119","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100119","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Currently, the spread of H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) and avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is one of the major predicaments facing the poultry industry. Virus-like particles (VLPs)-based vaccine, as one of the most promising alternative to traditional vaccines, provides new perspectives for the prevention of poultry diseases. Here, we generated a chimeric VLPs (VLPs) vaccine against both AIV and IBV by using baculovirus/insect cell expression system, and evaluated its efficacy in chickens. The VLPs is composed of three proteins: HA, M1, and rS. The HA and M1 proteins were derived from the H9N2 AIV A/chicken/Anhui/LH99/2017 (AH/99, H9N2), while rS was composed of the S1 subunit of the QX-type IBV CK/CH/JS/CZ211063 (CZ211063, GI-19) protein and the transmembrane domain (TM) and cytoplasmic tail domain (CTD) of the H9N2 AIV HA protein. Subcutaneous immunization with the VLPs vaccine induced a robust humoral immune responses, providing complete protection against H9N2 AIV in chickens. Furthermore, challenge experiments with QX-type IBV indicated that VLPs vaccine immunization significantly inhibited viral replication in the trachea, lung, and kidney, and suppressed viral shedding in the throat and cloaca. Additionally, histopathological analysis revealed that the VLPs vaccine effectively mitigated QX-type IBV-induced tissue damages in the respiratory and renal systems. Collectively, these results suggest that the VLPs vaccine developed in this study is a promising vaccine candidate for the avian influenza and infectious bronchitis control, and highlight the potential of VLP-based vaccines as a viable alternative to traditional egg-dependent vaccines in the prevention of poultry diseases.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 2","pages":"Article 100119"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143902426","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Serum antibody titers against distemper, parvovirus and infectious hepatitis in dogs from Central Spain","authors":"Jose L. Blanco ,&nbsp;Elena Parra ,&nbsp;Silvia Rubies ,&nbsp;Gustavo Ortiz-Diez ,&nbsp;Marta E. Garcia","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100107","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100107","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A canine population's immune resistance to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV), and infectious hepatitis virus (CAV-1) was evaluated. In this study, a total of 112 sera were analyzed. Animals were considered as vaccinated if, in the last two years, they had received at least one dose of a vaccine that provides joint protection against CDV, CPV, and CAV-1. Animals that had never received any dose of these vaccines were designated as non-vaccinated. CDV, CPV, and CAV-1 antibodies were detected via a modified solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which detects IgG antibody levels in sera and provides semi-quantitative results in &lt;30 min. In total, 41.1 % of the dogs had been vaccinated, and 58.9 % of dogs were designated as non-vaccinated. Overall, 90.2 %, 92.0 %, and 78.6 % of the tested dogs had positive results for the presence of IgG antibodies against CPV, CDV, and CAV-1, respectively. CPV antibodies were present in 87.9 % (58/66) of the vaccinated and 93.5 % (43/46) of the non-vaccinated dogs, while CDV antibodies were present in 95.5 % (63/66) of the vaccinated and 87.0 % (40/46) of the non-vaccinated dogs. Finally, CAV-1 antibodies were present in 84.8 % (56/66) of the vaccinated and of 69.6 % (32/46) the non-vaccinated dogs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 2","pages":"Article 100107"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143642238","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Efficacy of intranasal vaccines containing bovine corona virus or bovine respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 in young calves with or without maternally derived antibodies","authors":"Piet Nuijten,&nbsp;Birgit Makoschey,&nbsp;Elias Salem,&nbsp;Mark van Rooij,&nbsp;Geert Vertenten","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100106","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100106","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus, and bovine corona virus cause respiratory disease in calves during the first weeks of life and protection should be achieved as young as possible to cover the period with the highest risk. Maternal antibodies present in the colostrum that calves receive immediately after birth may result in positive serum antibody titers against these viruses which may interfere with vaccination. However, in this investigation we show that two new intranasal vaccines containing these three, live viral attenuated viruses can provide protection in calves with or without maternally derived antibody titers at a very young age.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100106"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143474001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rabies vaccines: Journey from classical to modern era","authors":"Bushra Khan ,&nbsp;Nidhi Shrivastava ,&nbsp;Naheed Parveen Sheikh ,&nbsp;Pramod Kumar Singh ,&nbsp;Hem Chandra Jha ,&nbsp;Hamendra Singh Parmar","doi":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100105","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.vetvac.2025.100105","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rabies, caused by the neurotropic rabies virus, remains a significant public health concern worldwide. It remains a deadly zoonotic disease with a near 100 % fatality rate once clinical symptoms manifest, causing about 59,000 deaths annually, of which 59.6 % occur in Asia and 36.4 % in Africa. Dog-mediated rabies accounts for over 99 % of human cases. This review provides a comprehensive overview of rabies, covering its epidemiology, pathogenesis, Etiology, and developments in rabies vaccines. Once the virus enters the body through the bite of an infected animal it travels via peripheral nerves to the central nervous system, leading to fatal encephalitis if left untreated. Vaccination of domestic animals plays a pivotal role in preventing transmission to humans. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) remains the cornerstone of rabies prevention in individuals exposed to potentially infected animals, comprising rabies vaccine and Rabies immunoglobulin administration. Advances in molecular virology have shed light on the pathogenesis of rabies, revealing the intricate interactions between the virus and the host immune system. Despite decades of research, treatment options for established rabies infection remain limited, emphasizing the importance of preventive measures. Experimental therapies, including monoclonal antibodies and novel antiviral agents, promise to improve outcomes in rabies patients. Regardless of the established efficacy of rabies vaccines, challenges remain in ensuring widespread accessibility and coverage, particularly in resource-limited regions. Strategies to enhance pre-exposure prophylaxis with affordable vaccine delivery are essential for achieving global rabies control and elimination goals, underscoring the need for sustained surveillance, vaccination, and public awareness efforts. Continued research into the virology and immunology of rabies is essential for the development of novel interventions to combat this deadly disease.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":101273,"journal":{"name":"Veterinary Vaccine","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100105"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143480121","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}