Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.015
M. Andréani, B. Ménez
The main known organic compounds on Earth are biologically derived, whether they are direct products of biological activity or the result of thermal degradation of bio-derived material. While the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic reactants is a common process in the chemical industry, it remains an unverified component of the deep carbon cycle on Earth and possibly on other planetary bodies. Abiotic organic synthesis is central to life emergence and sustainability, and possibly to “geo-inspired” resources. Intensive efforts are still needed to unravel the possible forms, sources, quantities, and formation mechanisms of abiotic carbon compounds under geologically relevant conditions. An improved knowledge of their processing within the lithosphere is also mandatory to better quantify their impact on biogeochemical cycles and their contribution to C fluxes between Earth’s external and internal envelops. Their presence in fluids and rocks may also affect the kinetics of fluid–silicate reactions and the fates of other elements, particularly the redox-sensitive ones (e.g. transition metals, S). Abiotic organic compounds in the lithosphere can have two main origins: either rising from a deep volcanic source in the mantle or formed in situ in the upper lithosphere during hydrothermal processes from mantellic or seawater inorganic carbon compounds (see Refs. 1 and 2 for reviews). In the present chapter, we focus on lithospheric hydrothermal processes that include late magmatic stages and fluid–rock reactions. In fluids, natural occurrences of recognized abiotic organic volatiles of hydrothermal origin include methane (CH4), short-chain alkanes, and small organic acids. They have mainly been observed in geothermal systems or continental seepages within ophiolites and Precambrian shields and at hydrothermal vents near mid-ocean ridges and subduction forearcs. Hence, they are not necessarily associated with deep active volcanism, and they attest to the contribution of lithospheric hydrothermal processes to abiotic organic synthesis. In most cases, these occurrences of organic volatiles are associated with high concentrations of H2 reached by reduction of water during aqueous alteration of ferrous iron-bearing minerals. The latter are particularly abundant in mantle and olivine-rich lithologies whose alteration process is known as serpentinization.
{"title":"New Perspectives on Abiotic Organic Synthesis and Processing during Hydrothermal Alteration of the Oceanic Lithosphere","authors":"M. Andréani, B. Ménez","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.015","url":null,"abstract":"The main known organic compounds on Earth are biologically derived, whether they are direct products of biological activity or the result of thermal degradation of bio-derived material. While the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic reactants is a common process in the chemical industry, it remains an unverified component of the deep carbon cycle on Earth and possibly on other planetary bodies. Abiotic organic synthesis is central to life emergence and sustainability, and possibly to “geo-inspired” resources. Intensive efforts are still needed to unravel the possible forms, sources, quantities, and formation mechanisms of abiotic carbon compounds under geologically relevant conditions. An improved knowledge of their processing within the lithosphere is also mandatory to better quantify their impact on biogeochemical cycles and their contribution to C fluxes between Earth’s external and internal envelops. Their presence in fluids and rocks may also affect the kinetics of fluid–silicate reactions and the fates of other elements, particularly the redox-sensitive ones (e.g. transition metals, S). Abiotic organic compounds in the lithosphere can have two main origins: either rising from a deep volcanic source in the mantle or formed in situ in the upper lithosphere during hydrothermal processes from mantellic or seawater inorganic carbon compounds (see Refs. 1 and 2 for reviews). In the present chapter, we focus on lithospheric hydrothermal processes that include late magmatic stages and fluid–rock reactions. In fluids, natural occurrences of recognized abiotic organic volatiles of hydrothermal origin include methane (CH4), short-chain alkanes, and small organic acids. They have mainly been observed in geothermal systems or continental seepages within ophiolites and Precambrian shields and at hydrothermal vents near mid-ocean ridges and subduction forearcs. Hence, they are not necessarily associated with deep active volcanism, and they attest to the contribution of lithospheric hydrothermal processes to abiotic organic synthesis. In most cases, these occurrences of organic volatiles are associated with high concentrations of H2 reached by reduction of water during aqueous alteration of ferrous iron-bearing minerals. The latter are particularly abundant in mantle and olivine-rich lithologies whose alteration process is known as serpentinization.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130624809","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.010
M. Galvez, M. Pubellier
10.1 Carbon Distribution on Earth The core, mantle, and crust contain more than 99% of Earth’s carbon stocks. The remaining 1% is in the fluid Earth, split between the biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans. But this distribution must be considered as a snapshot in time, not a fixed property of the Earth system. Continuous exchange of carbon between fluid (ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere) and solid Earth (mainly mantle and crust) has modified the size of the fluid and solid carbon reservoirs over geological time, regulating atmospheric composition and climate. The subduction zone, where converging tectonic plates sink below one another or collide, is the main pathway for this exchange. It will be the focus of this chapter. Geologists believe that a long-term shift in regime of subduction carbon cycling is underway. Following an ecological innovation – the evolution of open-ocean calcifiers (e.g. coccolithophores and foraminifera) in the Mesozoic, marine regression and other changes – it is thought that the accumulation of carbonates on the seafloor (pelagic) has increased over the Cenozoic to reach about 50–60% of the global rate today (Table 10.1). Most of the carbonate that has accumulated over the last 100 Myr has not subducted yet (Table 10.1) and should do so sometime in the coming hundreds of millions of years. But when this will happen is unknown because there is no direct link between the precipitation of carbon on the seafloor and the birth of a subduction zone. Irrespective of when it happens, because the fates of shelf and deep-sea carbon materials differ, it has been proposed that intensification of deep-ocean carbonate deposition may eventually affect the prevailing regime of geological carbon cycling. To understand the link between oceanic carbon deposition centers and modes of longterm carbon cycling, we need to consider the fate of sedimentary carbon. Shelf and oceanic island carbon mostly escapes subduction and is accreted to continents during continental subduction and collision. While a fraction of pelagic carbon can also be thrusted within accretionary wedges and accreted, most is bound to be subducted, dissolved, or molten at various depths (Figure 10.1) within the sinking plate, before being released in the forearc, arc, or back-arc regions, or mechanically incorporated deeper into the mantle. The contrasted fate distinguishes two principal modes of tectonic carbon cycling: the shallow accretionary carbon cycle and the relatively deeper subduction zone carbon cycle (Figure 10.1). What is not clear yet is how fast those cycles operate and how they interact.
{"title":"How Do Subduction Zones Regulate the Carbon Cycle?","authors":"M. Galvez, M. Pubellier","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.010","url":null,"abstract":"10.1 Carbon Distribution on Earth The core, mantle, and crust contain more than 99% of Earth’s carbon stocks. The remaining 1% is in the fluid Earth, split between the biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans. But this distribution must be considered as a snapshot in time, not a fixed property of the Earth system. Continuous exchange of carbon between fluid (ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere) and solid Earth (mainly mantle and crust) has modified the size of the fluid and solid carbon reservoirs over geological time, regulating atmospheric composition and climate. The subduction zone, where converging tectonic plates sink below one another or collide, is the main pathway for this exchange. It will be the focus of this chapter. Geologists believe that a long-term shift in regime of subduction carbon cycling is underway. Following an ecological innovation – the evolution of open-ocean calcifiers (e.g. coccolithophores and foraminifera) in the Mesozoic, marine regression and other changes – it is thought that the accumulation of carbonates on the seafloor (pelagic) has increased over the Cenozoic to reach about 50–60% of the global rate today (Table 10.1). Most of the carbonate that has accumulated over the last 100 Myr has not subducted yet (Table 10.1) and should do so sometime in the coming hundreds of millions of years. But when this will happen is unknown because there is no direct link between the precipitation of carbon on the seafloor and the birth of a subduction zone. Irrespective of when it happens, because the fates of shelf and deep-sea carbon materials differ, it has been proposed that intensification of deep-ocean carbonate deposition may eventually affect the prevailing regime of geological carbon cycling. To understand the link between oceanic carbon deposition centers and modes of longterm carbon cycling, we need to consider the fate of sedimentary carbon. Shelf and oceanic island carbon mostly escapes subduction and is accreted to continents during continental subduction and collision. While a fraction of pelagic carbon can also be thrusted within accretionary wedges and accreted, most is bound to be subducted, dissolved, or molten at various depths (Figure 10.1) within the sinking plate, before being released in the forearc, arc, or back-arc regions, or mechanically incorporated deeper into the mantle. The contrasted fate distinguishes two principal modes of tectonic carbon cycling: the shallow accretionary carbon cycle and the relatively deeper subduction zone carbon cycle (Figure 10.1). What is not clear yet is how fast those cycles operate and how they interact.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131980454","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.019
D. LaRowe, J. Amend
{"title":"Energy Limits for Life in the Subsurface","authors":"D. LaRowe, J. Amend","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.019","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121860841","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.018
K. Lloyd, C. Sheik, B. García-Moreno, C. Royer
Much of the microbial life on Earth resides below the surface in the crust (Figure 18.1) (1), either buried in marine sediments (2) and petroleum deposits (3) or entrained in aquifers within oceanic and terrestrial rocks (Figure 18.2) (4–8), fluid inclusions in salt, permafrost, and ice (9–11), as well as hydrothermal and geothermal fluids (12,13). The study of deep subsurface life has defined our understanding of habitability and expanded our knowledge of the mechanisms that enables life to live in these environments (14). While the study of deep life may seem like a philosophical exercise, understanding this enigmatic biosphere has important real-world implications for assessing the safety and feasibility of underground storage of spent nuclear fuel and other toxic compounds, sequestration of atmospheric CO2, or acquisition of fuels such as tar sands, deep subsurface coal beds, methane hydrates, or fracking (3,5,15). Organisms inhabiting subsurface environments likely have been isolated from the surface world for hundreds to millions of years (16). Thus, their metabolic lifestyles may differ substantially from those of surface organisms. Even though subsurface environments are diverse (Chapter 16, this volume), subsurface microbes share common biological challenges such as limitations of energy, resources, and space, as well as extremes of pressure, pH, osmolarity, and temperature (Chapter 17, this volume). On the other hand, subsurface environments offer biological advantages, too: environmental stability, protection from UV irradiation, and oxygen. These unique subsurface conditions lead to communities that are often phylogenetically and functionally diverse, with extremely slow population turnover times (14,17,18) and efficient energy metabolisms (14,19). Increasingly, the roles of viruses and eukaryotes, in addition to bacteria and archaea, are being recognized in the deep subsurface biosphere (20–25). Several barriers hamper the study of life in Earth’s crust, such as sample acquisition and the difficulty of retrieving sterile, unaltered samples that have not been contaminated by drilling fluid. However, an even bigger hurdle is the difficulty of studying the copious subsurface microbes with no cultured representatives (13,26). Their functional potential must be pieced together from direct assessments of biomolecules or biochemical processes in natural samples. However, even subsurface microbes related to laboratory cultures with “known” functions, may not perform those functions in the natural
{"title":"The Genetics, Biochemistry, and Biophysics of Carbon Cycling by Deep Life","authors":"K. Lloyd, C. Sheik, B. García-Moreno, C. Royer","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.018","url":null,"abstract":"Much of the microbial life on Earth resides below the surface in the crust (Figure 18.1) (1), either buried in marine sediments (2) and petroleum deposits (3) or entrained in aquifers within oceanic and terrestrial rocks (Figure 18.2) (4–8), fluid inclusions in salt, permafrost, and ice (9–11), as well as hydrothermal and geothermal fluids (12,13). The study of deep subsurface life has defined our understanding of habitability and expanded our knowledge of the mechanisms that enables life to live in these environments (14). While the study of deep life may seem like a philosophical exercise, understanding this enigmatic biosphere has important real-world implications for assessing the safety and feasibility of underground storage of spent nuclear fuel and other toxic compounds, sequestration of atmospheric CO2, or acquisition of fuels such as tar sands, deep subsurface coal beds, methane hydrates, or fracking (3,5,15). Organisms inhabiting subsurface environments likely have been isolated from the surface world for hundreds to millions of years (16). Thus, their metabolic lifestyles may differ substantially from those of surface organisms. Even though subsurface environments are diverse (Chapter 16, this volume), subsurface microbes share common biological challenges such as limitations of energy, resources, and space, as well as extremes of pressure, pH, osmolarity, and temperature (Chapter 17, this volume). On the other hand, subsurface environments offer biological advantages, too: environmental stability, protection from UV irradiation, and oxygen. These unique subsurface conditions lead to communities that are often phylogenetically and functionally diverse, with extremely slow population turnover times (14,17,18) and efficient energy metabolisms (14,19). Increasingly, the roles of viruses and eukaryotes, in addition to bacteria and archaea, are being recognized in the deep subsurface biosphere (20–25). Several barriers hamper the study of life in Earth’s crust, such as sample acquisition and the difficulty of retrieving sterile, unaltered samples that have not been contaminated by drilling fluid. However, an even bigger hurdle is the difficulty of studying the copious subsurface microbes with no cultured representatives (13,26). Their functional potential must be pieced together from direct assessments of biomolecules or biochemical processes in natural samples. However, even subsurface microbes related to laboratory cultures with “known” functions, may not perform those functions in the natural","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129822143","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.013
E. Young
Isotope ratios have been used extensively to trace the origins of methane gases (e.g. Schoell 1980). For this purpose, the stable isotope ratios C∕C and D/H have been paramount. These ratios refer to the atomic abundances of the rare isotopes of carbon and hydrogen relative to the more abundant isotopes, in aggregate, and inclusive of all of the methane isotopic molecular species in a sample of gas. We therefore refer to these ratios as “bulk” isotope ratios. The term “isotopologue” refers to specific isotopic versions of the molecules. For example, the “CH3D isotopologue” refers to the CH3D + CH2DH + CHDH2 + CDH3 permutations of the D-substituted isotopic species of CH4 collectively. In the geosciences, the term “clumping” denotes more than one heavy isotope in a single molecule or molecular unit (e.g. COOO + COOO + COOO in the CO3 2– moiety within the CaCO3 crystalline structure). In this chapter, the results of recent studies of the relative abundances of the clumped methane species CH3D and CH2D2 measured at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) are summarized. We begin with a description of the goals of this research program. The original excitement about making use of the C–O multiply substituted isotopologue of CO2, COO + COO, derived from acid digestion of carbonate was due to the prospect of removing the various logical degeneracies that have historically plagued our interpretations of the significance of O/O (usually expressed as δO values, the per mil differences in O/O from a standard material) in carbonates (Eiler et al. 2005). Marine carbonate oxygen isotope ratios can vary in response to temperature, ice volume, or secular variations in the δO of the oceans. By using the temperature-dependent propensity of C and O to form bonds as a homogeneous (as in a single-phase as opposed to heterogeneous fractionation between two separate phases, in this case carbonate and water) thermometer, the relationship between bulk δO in the carbonate and that in the water becomes irrelevant if the goal is to deduce temperature of formation. The goal, therefore, was to develop an isotopic tracer in which the bulk isotope ratios are normalized out. The CH4 clumping project at UCLA, in collaboration with the Carnegie Institution of Science, began in 2008 with the prospects for funding by the Deep Carbon Observatory and an eye toward replicating the powerful aspects of carbonate clumping for methane.
{"title":"A Two-Dimensional Perspective on CH4 Isotope Clumping","authors":"E. Young","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.013","url":null,"abstract":"Isotope ratios have been used extensively to trace the origins of methane gases (e.g. Schoell 1980). For this purpose, the stable isotope ratios C∕C and D/H have been paramount. These ratios refer to the atomic abundances of the rare isotopes of carbon and hydrogen relative to the more abundant isotopes, in aggregate, and inclusive of all of the methane isotopic molecular species in a sample of gas. We therefore refer to these ratios as “bulk” isotope ratios. The term “isotopologue” refers to specific isotopic versions of the molecules. For example, the “CH3D isotopologue” refers to the CH3D + CH2DH + CHDH2 + CDH3 permutations of the D-substituted isotopic species of CH4 collectively. In the geosciences, the term “clumping” denotes more than one heavy isotope in a single molecule or molecular unit (e.g. COOO + COOO + COOO in the CO3 2– moiety within the CaCO3 crystalline structure). In this chapter, the results of recent studies of the relative abundances of the clumped methane species CH3D and CH2D2 measured at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) are summarized. We begin with a description of the goals of this research program. The original excitement about making use of the C–O multiply substituted isotopologue of CO2, COO + COO, derived from acid digestion of carbonate was due to the prospect of removing the various logical degeneracies that have historically plagued our interpretations of the significance of O/O (usually expressed as δO values, the per mil differences in O/O from a standard material) in carbonates (Eiler et al. 2005). Marine carbonate oxygen isotope ratios can vary in response to temperature, ice volume, or secular variations in the δO of the oceans. By using the temperature-dependent propensity of C and O to form bonds as a homogeneous (as in a single-phase as opposed to heterogeneous fractionation between two separate phases, in this case carbonate and water) thermometer, the relationship between bulk δO in the carbonate and that in the water becomes irrelevant if the goal is to deduce temperature of formation. The goal, therefore, was to develop an isotopic tracer in which the bulk isotope ratios are normalized out. The CH4 clumping project at UCLA, in collaboration with the Carnegie Institution of Science, began in 2008 with the prospects for funding by the Deep Carbon Observatory and an eye toward replicating the powerful aspects of carbonate clumping for methane.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"53 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130357177","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-31DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.012
D. Cole, A. Striolo
Porosity and permeability are key variables linking the origin, form, movement, and quantity of carbon-bearing fluids that collectively dictate the physical and chemical evolution of fluid–gas–rock systems. The distribution of pores, pore volume, and their connectedness vary widely, depending on the Earth material, its geologic context, and its history. The general tendency is for porosity and permeability to decrease with increasing depth, along with pore size and/or fracture aperture width. Exceptions involve zones of deformation (e.g. fault or shear zones), regions bounding magma emplacement and subduction zones. Pores or fractures display three-dimensional hierarchical structures, exhibiting variable connectivity defining the pore and/or fracture network. This network structure and topology control: (1) internal pore volumes, mineral phases, and potentially reactive surfaces accessible to fluids, aqueous solutions, volatiles, inclusions, etc.; and (2) diffusive path lengths, tortuosity, and the predominance of advective or diffusive transport. For solids dominated by finer networks, transport is dominated by slow advection and/or diffusion. Despite the extensive spatial and temporal scales over which fluid–mineral interactions can occur in geologic systems, interfacial phenomena including fluids at mineral surfaces or contained within buried interfaces such as pores, pore throats, grain boundaries, microfractures, and dislocations (Figure 12.1) impact the nature of multiphase flow and reactive transport in geologic systems. Complexity in fluid–mineral systems takes many forms, including the interaction of dissolved constituents in water, wetting films on mineral surfaces, adsorption of dissolved and volatile species, the initiation of reactions, and transport of mobile species. Direct observations and modeling of physical (transport) and chemical properties (reactivity) and associated interactions are challenging when considering the smallest length scales typical of pore and fracture features and their extended three-dimensional network structures. The various void types and their evolution during reaction with fluids are critically important factors controlling the distribution of the fluid-accessible pore volume, flow dynamics, fluid retention, chemical reactivity, and contaminant species transport. While fracture-dominated flow can be volumetrically dominant in shallow crustal settings
{"title":"The Influence of Nanoporosity on the Behavior of Carbon-Bearing Fluids","authors":"D. Cole, A. Striolo","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.012","url":null,"abstract":"Porosity and permeability are key variables linking the origin, form, movement, and quantity of carbon-bearing fluids that collectively dictate the physical and chemical evolution of fluid–gas–rock systems. The distribution of pores, pore volume, and their connectedness vary widely, depending on the Earth material, its geologic context, and its history. The general tendency is for porosity and permeability to decrease with increasing depth, along with pore size and/or fracture aperture width. Exceptions involve zones of deformation (e.g. fault or shear zones), regions bounding magma emplacement and subduction zones. Pores or fractures display three-dimensional hierarchical structures, exhibiting variable connectivity defining the pore and/or fracture network. This network structure and topology control: (1) internal pore volumes, mineral phases, and potentially reactive surfaces accessible to fluids, aqueous solutions, volatiles, inclusions, etc.; and (2) diffusive path lengths, tortuosity, and the predominance of advective or diffusive transport. For solids dominated by finer networks, transport is dominated by slow advection and/or diffusion. Despite the extensive spatial and temporal scales over which fluid–mineral interactions can occur in geologic systems, interfacial phenomena including fluids at mineral surfaces or contained within buried interfaces such as pores, pore throats, grain boundaries, microfractures, and dislocations (Figure 12.1) impact the nature of multiphase flow and reactive transport in geologic systems. Complexity in fluid–mineral systems takes many forms, including the interaction of dissolved constituents in water, wetting films on mineral surfaces, adsorption of dissolved and volatile species, the initiation of reactions, and transport of mobile species. Direct observations and modeling of physical (transport) and chemical properties (reactivity) and associated interactions are challenging when considering the smallest length scales typical of pore and fracture features and their extended three-dimensional network structures. The various void types and their evolution during reaction with fluids are critically important factors controlling the distribution of the fluid-accessible pore volume, flow dynamics, fluid retention, chemical reactivity, and contaminant species transport. While fracture-dominated flow can be volumetrically dominant in shallow crustal settings","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"42 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132216924","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-20DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.005
S. Shirey, K. Smit, D. Pearson, M. Walter, S. Aulbach, F. Brenker, H. Bureau, Antony D. Burnham, P. Cartigny, T. Chacko, D. Frost, E. Hauri, Dorrit E. Jacob, S. Jacobsen, S. Kohn, R. Luth, S. Mikhail, O. Navon, F. Nestola, P. Nimis, M. Palot, Evan M. Smith, T. Stachel, V. Stagno, A. Steele, R. Stern, E. Thomassot, A. Thomson, Y. Weiss
The authors thank the following institutions and individuals: our home institutions; SBS and EHH for support from the US National Science Foundation (EAR-104992); FN and PN for support from the European Research Council Starting Grant (#307322); Wuyi Wang and Tom Moses of the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) for the support of the research projects undertaken by KVS and EMS; and SCK for the support of De Beers Technologies.
{"title":"Diamonds and the Mantle Geodynamics of Carbon","authors":"S. Shirey, K. Smit, D. Pearson, M. Walter, S. Aulbach, F. Brenker, H. Bureau, Antony D. Burnham, P. Cartigny, T. Chacko, D. Frost, E. Hauri, Dorrit E. Jacob, S. Jacobsen, S. Kohn, R. Luth, S. Mikhail, O. Navon, F. Nestola, P. Nimis, M. Palot, Evan M. Smith, T. Stachel, V. Stagno, A. Steele, R. Stern, E. Thomassot, A. Thomson, Y. Weiss","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.005","url":null,"abstract":"The authors thank the following institutions and individuals: our home institutions; SBS and EHH for support from the US National Science Foundation (EAR-104992); FN and PN for support from the European Research Council Starting Grant (#307322); Wuyi Wang and Tom Moses of the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) for the support of the research projects undertaken by KVS and EMS; and SCK for the support of De Beers Technologies.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134048951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.003
Jie Li, Bin Chen, M. Mookherjee, G. Morard
3.
3.
{"title":"Carbon versus Other Light Elements in Earth’s Core","authors":"Jie Li, Bin Chen, M. Mookherjee, G. Morard","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.003","url":null,"abstract":"3.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128440614","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.001
B. Orcutt, I. Daniel, R. Dasgupta, D. Crist, M. Edmonds
Carbon is one of the most important elements in Earth. Its behavior has important consequences for the global climate system, for the origin and evolution of life, for carbon-based energy resources, and for a vast array of carbon-based materials that are central to our daily lives. In short, carbon matters
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