Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.014
E. Shock, C. Bockisch, C. Estrada, K. Fecteau, I. Gould, H. Hartnett, Kristin Johnson, K. Robinson, Jessie Shipp, L. Williams
{"title":"Earth as Organic Chemist","authors":"E. Shock, C. Bockisch, C. Estrada, K. Fecteau, I. Gould, H. Hartnett, Kristin Johnson, K. Robinson, Jessie Shipp, L. Williams","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.014","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"109 26","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"120820762","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.004
V. Stagno, V. Cerantola, S. Aulbach, S. Lobanov, C. McCammon, M. Merlini
Carbon (C) occurs in the mantle in its elemental state in the form of graphite and diamond, but also as oxidized compounds that include carbonate minerals and carbonated magmas, as reduced components such as methane and carbide, and as gaseous phases in the C–O–H chemical system. The occurrence of C-bearing phases characterized by different oxidation states reflects magmatic processes occurring in Earth’s interior that link to its oxygenation through space and time. Improving our understanding of the physical and chemical behavior of carbon at extreme conditions sheds light on the type and depth of possible reactions taking place in the interior of Earth and other planets over time and allows the identification of deep carbon reservoirs and mechanisms that move carbon among different reservoirs from the surface to the atmosphere, thereby affecting the total terrestrial budget of carbon ingassing and outgassing. Carbon occurs in diverse forms depending on surrounding conditions such as pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity (fO2), and the availability of chemical elements that are particularly reactive with carbon to form minerals and fluids. Despite the low abundance of carbon within Earth, the stability of C-rich phases in equilibrium with surrounding minerals provides an important geochemical tracer of redox evolution in Earth and other planets, as well as an important economic resource in the form of diamonds. Knowledge of carbon cycling through the mantle requires an understanding of the stable forms of carbon-bearing phases and their abundance at pressures, temperatures, and fO2 values that are representative of Earth’s interior. Such information is necessary to identify potential carbon reservoirs and the petrogenetic processes by which carbon may be (re) cycled through the mantle over time, eventually being brought to the surface by magmas and to the atmosphere as dissolved gaseous species. Accurate estimates of carbon abundance in Earth’s interior are challenging for many reasons, such as the unknown primordial budget of carbon, the low solubility of carbon in the dominant silicate minerals of the upper and lower mantle, the low modal abundance of accessory carbon-bearing minerals and graphite/diamond in mantle xenoliths, and because magmas occurring at shallow depths are the product of igneous differentiation, magma chamber processes, and degassing. Experimental studies conducted at high
碳(C)以石墨和金刚石的单质形式存在于地幔中，但也以氧化化合物的形式存在，包括碳酸盐矿物和碳酸化岩浆，以还原组分的形式存在，如甲烷和碳化物，以及以C - o - h化学体系中的气相存在。以不同氧化态为特征的含c相的出现反映了地球内部发生的岩浆过程，这些岩浆过程通过空间和时间与地球的氧化作用联系在一起。提高我们对极端条件下碳的物理和化学行为的理解，揭示了地球和其他行星内部随着时间的推移可能发生的反应的类型和深度，并使我们能够确定深层碳储层和碳在不同储层之间从地表转移到大气的机制，从而影响地球碳吸入和释放的总预算。碳以不同的形式存在，这取决于周围的条件，如压力、温度、氧逸度(fO2)，以及与碳反应形成矿物和流体的化学元素的可用性。尽管地球内部的碳丰度很低，但富c相与周围矿物平衡的稳定性为地球和其他行星的氧化还原演化提供了重要的地球化学示踪剂，也是钻石形式的重要经济资源。要了解地幔中的碳循环，就必须了解含碳相的稳定形式，以及它们在压力、温度和fO2值下的丰度，这些都是地球内部的代表。这些信息对于确定潜在的碳储集层和岩石形成过程是必要的，通过这些过程，碳可能随着时间的推移在地幔中(再)循环，最终被岩浆带到地表，并以溶解的气态物种的形式进入大气。由于许多原因，对地球内部碳丰度的准确估计具有挑战性，例如未知的原始碳预算，碳在上下地幔主要硅酸盐矿物中的溶解度低，地幔包体中辅助含碳矿物和石墨/金刚石的低模态丰度，以及发生在浅层深处的岩浆是火成岩分异、岩浆房过程和脱气的产物。实验研究在高
{"title":"Carbon-Bearing Phases throughout Earth’s Interior","authors":"V. Stagno, V. Cerantola, S. Aulbach, S. Lobanov, C. McCammon, M. Merlini","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.004","url":null,"abstract":"Carbon (C) occurs in the mantle in its elemental state in the form of graphite and diamond, but also as oxidized compounds that include carbonate minerals and carbonated magmas, as reduced components such as methane and carbide, and as gaseous phases in the C–O–H chemical system. The occurrence of C-bearing phases characterized by different oxidation states reflects magmatic processes occurring in Earth’s interior that link to its oxygenation through space and time. Improving our understanding of the physical and chemical behavior of carbon at extreme conditions sheds light on the type and depth of possible reactions taking place in the interior of Earth and other planets over time and allows the identification of deep carbon reservoirs and mechanisms that move carbon among different reservoirs from the surface to the atmosphere, thereby affecting the total terrestrial budget of carbon ingassing and outgassing. Carbon occurs in diverse forms depending on surrounding conditions such as pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity (fO2), and the availability of chemical elements that are particularly reactive with carbon to form minerals and fluids. Despite the low abundance of carbon within Earth, the stability of C-rich phases in equilibrium with surrounding minerals provides an important geochemical tracer of redox evolution in Earth and other planets, as well as an important economic resource in the form of diamonds. Knowledge of carbon cycling through the mantle requires an understanding of the stable forms of carbon-bearing phases and their abundance at pressures, temperatures, and fO2 values that are representative of Earth’s interior. Such information is necessary to identify potential carbon reservoirs and the petrogenetic processes by which carbon may be (re) cycled through the mantle over time, eventually being brought to the surface by magmas and to the atmosphere as dissolved gaseous species. Accurate estimates of carbon abundance in Earth’s interior are challenging for many reasons, such as the unknown primordial budget of carbon, the low solubility of carbon in the dominant silicate minerals of the upper and lower mantle, the low modal abundance of accessory carbon-bearing minerals and graphite/diamond in mantle xenoliths, and because magmas occurring at shallow depths are the product of igneous differentiation, magma chamber processes, and degassing. Experimental studies conducted at high","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"47 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125059638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.011
Cin-Ty A. Lee, Hehe Jiang, R. Dasgupta, M. Torres
increasing the sensitivity of the global weathering feedback (states a to b), which buffers the rise of pCO 2 . After magmatism ends, physical and chemical weathering persist, driving pCO 2 to low levels. Magmatic orogens can potentially drive greenhouses, but are followed by global cooling due to protracted weathering.
{"title":"A Framework for Understanding Whole-Earth Carbon Cycling","authors":"Cin-Ty A. Lee, Hehe Jiang, R. Dasgupta, M. Torres","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.011","url":null,"abstract":"increasing the sensitivity of the global weathering feedback (states a to b), which buffers the rise of pCO 2 . After magmatism ends, physical and chemical weathering persist, driving pCO 2 to low levels. Magmatic orogens can potentially drive greenhouses, but are followed by global cooling due to protracted weathering.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"61 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116604144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.006
G. Yaxley, S. Ghosh, E. Kiseeva, A. Mallik, C. Spandler, A. Thomson, M. Walter
deep Earth, from lower mantle to crust. We fi rst outline constraints from high-pressure experimental petrology and thermodynamic considerations on their stability, as functions of variables such as pressure (P), temperature (T), and oxygen fugacity ( f O 2 These constraints are then used in the context of different tectonic settings in Earth to infer the presence and nature of carbonate melts in those various locations. vapor at pressures lower than 2 GPa At the redox front, reduced carbon present in the eclogite or peridotite oxidizes to form trace to minor amounts of carbonatitic melt (labeled (1)). carbonatitic melt causes fl uxed partial melting of eclogite and peridotite because the carbonated of peridotite and eclogite are at much lower of of produces of with surrounding subsolidus volatile-free peridotite, and a similar melt-rock reaction as proposed (i) takes place.
{"title":"CO2-Rich Melts in Earth","authors":"G. Yaxley, S. Ghosh, E. Kiseeva, A. Mallik, C. Spandler, A. Thomson, M. Walter","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.006","url":null,"abstract":"deep Earth, from lower mantle to crust. We fi rst outline constraints from high-pressure experimental petrology and thermodynamic considerations on their stability, as functions of variables such as pressure (P), temperature (T), and oxygen fugacity ( f O 2 These constraints are then used in the context of different tectonic settings in Earth to infer the presence and nature of carbonate melts in those various locations. vapor at pressures lower than 2 GPa At the redox front, reduced carbon present in the eclogite or peridotite oxidizes to form trace to minor amounts of carbonatitic melt (labeled (1)). carbonatitic melt causes fl uxed partial melting of eclogite and peridotite because the carbonated of peridotite and eclogite are at much lower of of produces of with surrounding subsolidus volatile-free peridotite, and a similar melt-rock reaction as proposed (i) takes place.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122178680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.016
S. Lang, M. Osburn, A. D. Steen
The form, fate, and biogeochemical cycling of carbon in subsurface environments impacts and reflects microbial activity and has important implications for global elemental fluxes. Photosynthetically derived organic matter (OM) is transported to a depth where it can continue to fuel life far from solar inputs. Alternative energy-yielding reactions such as the oxidation of minerals and reduced gases can fuel life in the rocky subsurface of both the ocean and continents, altering the distribution and characteristics of carbon compounds. Nonbiological reactions such as the precipitation of calcium carbonate influence the availability of dissolved inorganic carbon for lithoautotrophs and, simultaneously, the carbon cycle over geologic time. The abundances, characteristics, and distributions of carbon in the subsurface can therefore provide an integrated history of biotic and abiotic processes and a template for interpreting similar patterns from other planetary bodies. The goal of this chapter is to compile insights from disparate environments in order to build a mechanistic understanding of the controls on carbon abundance and distribution in the subsurface. The sections below summarize what is known from the oceanic and continental subsurface, realms that are often studied separately. We synthesize commonalities across these environments, highlight what remains unknown, and propose ideas for future directions. One challenge with working across the marine–continental divide is that the terminology used to describe organic carbon varies between the two. We will use the following terms and abbreviations: particulate organic carbon (POC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Another discrepancy between communities is in the use of units, with ppm or mg/L dominating the continental literature and μM or mM in the marine literature. We will use molar units throughout for comparison’s sake. Finally, while the soil community has moved away from the terms “refractory” and “recalcitrant” OM, they are still common in the marine community. Here, these terms refer to OM that has escaped remineralization due to its inherent molecular structure, physical associations with minerals, energetically unfavorable conditions, or the lack of a specific microbial community adapted to carry out the necessary degradative processes.
{"title":"Carbon in the Deep Biosphere","authors":"S. Lang, M. Osburn, A. D. Steen","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.016","url":null,"abstract":"The form, fate, and biogeochemical cycling of carbon in subsurface environments impacts and reflects microbial activity and has important implications for global elemental fluxes. Photosynthetically derived organic matter (OM) is transported to a depth where it can continue to fuel life far from solar inputs. Alternative energy-yielding reactions such as the oxidation of minerals and reduced gases can fuel life in the rocky subsurface of both the ocean and continents, altering the distribution and characteristics of carbon compounds. Nonbiological reactions such as the precipitation of calcium carbonate influence the availability of dissolved inorganic carbon for lithoautotrophs and, simultaneously, the carbon cycle over geologic time. The abundances, characteristics, and distributions of carbon in the subsurface can therefore provide an integrated history of biotic and abiotic processes and a template for interpreting similar patterns from other planetary bodies. The goal of this chapter is to compile insights from disparate environments in order to build a mechanistic understanding of the controls on carbon abundance and distribution in the subsurface. The sections below summarize what is known from the oceanic and continental subsurface, realms that are often studied separately. We synthesize commonalities across these environments, highlight what remains unknown, and propose ideas for future directions. One challenge with working across the marine–continental divide is that the terminology used to describe organic carbon varies between the two. We will use the following terms and abbreviations: particulate organic carbon (POC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Another discrepancy between communities is in the use of units, with ppm or mg/L dominating the continental literature and μM or mM in the marine literature. We will use molar units throughout for comparison’s sake. Finally, while the soil community has moved away from the terms “refractory” and “recalcitrant” OM, they are still common in the marine community. Here, these terms refer to OM that has escaped remineralization due to its inherent molecular structure, physical associations with minerals, energetically unfavorable conditions, or the lack of a specific microbial community adapted to carry out the necessary degradative processes.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"478 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123411157","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.009
E. Hauri, E. Cottrell, Katherine A. Kelley, J. Tucker, K. Shimizu, M. L. Voyer, J. Marske, A. Saal
melt inclusions. This provides independent evidence that the MORB source is not graphite saturated; however, these curves could be relevant when considering more reduced planetary bodies, such as Mars.
{"title":"Carbon in the Convecting Mantle","authors":"E. Hauri, E. Cottrell, Katherine A. Kelley, J. Tucker, K. Shimizu, M. L. Voyer, J. Marske, A. Saal","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.009","url":null,"abstract":"melt inclusions. This provides independent evidence that the MORB source is not graphite saturated; however, these curves could be relevant when considering more reduced planetary bodies, such as Mars.","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"84 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121387937","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.002
R. Dasgupta, D. Grewal
coef fi cients and solubilities of LEVEs in the silicate melts to examine the effect of core formation, with varying degrees of alloy – silicate equilibration, with or without loss of an early atmosphere formed via MO degassing on the remnant abundances of LEVEs in the bulk silicate reservoir. (a) LEVEs, when delivered as 0.015 M E late-accreting materials (i.e. 0% alloy – silicate equilibration), cause the volatile abundance to be higher than the present-day BSE. Core formation with increasing degrees of alloy – silicate equilibration increasingly the remnant MO in all LEVEs, with C being much more depleted than other LEVEs, leading to subchondritic C/N, C/H, and C/S ratios. (b) Combining early atmospheric loss with core formation cannot offset C loss to the core due to the lower solubility of C relative to the other LEVEs in the silicate MOs. Bulk Earth volatile abundance data are from McDonough, 83 while the alloy – silicate partition coef fi cients in a deep MO (P = 50 GPa, T = 3500 K; e.g. Siebert et al. 104 ) for C, N, S, and H are from the parametrized relationships of Chi et al., 71 Grewal et al., 105 Boujibar et al., 106 and Clesi et al., 107 respectively. Solubility constant data for C, N, S, and H in the silicate melt are from Armstrong et al., et O and
系数和硅酸盐熔体中LEVEs的溶解度，以考察具有不同程度合金-硅酸盐平衡的岩心形成，有无MO脱气形成的早期大气损失，对大块硅酸盐储层中LEVEs残留丰度的影响。(a)当以0.015 M E后期增积物质(即0%合金-硅酸盐平衡)输送时，水平导致挥发丰度高于当今的BSE。随着合金-硅酸盐平衡程度的增加，岩心形成中MO的残余含量逐渐增加，而C的耗尽程度远高于其他水平，导致了亚球粒C/N、C/H和C/S比值的增加。(b)将早期大气损失与岩心形成相结合不能抵消碳对岩心的损失，因为相对于硅酸盐钼中其他水平的碳溶解度较低。块状土挥发丰度数据来自McDonough, 83，而合金-硅酸盐在深层MO中的分配系数(P = 50 GPa, T = 3500 K;例如Siebert et al. 104)， C、N、S和H分别来自Chi et al.， 71 Grewal et al.， 105 Boujibar et al.， 106和Clesi et al.， 107。C、N、S和H在硅酸盐熔体中的溶解度常数数据来自Armstrong等人，et O和
{"title":"Origin and Early Differentiation of Carbon and Associated Life-Essential Volatile Elements on Earth","authors":"R. Dasgupta, D. Grewal","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.002","url":null,"abstract":"coef fi cients and solubilities of LEVEs in the silicate melts to examine the effect of core formation, with varying degrees of alloy – silicate equilibration, with or without loss of an early atmosphere formed via MO degassing on the remnant abundances of LEVEs in the bulk silicate reservoir. (a) LEVEs, when delivered as 0.015 M E late-accreting materials (i.e. 0% alloy – silicate equilibration), cause the volatile abundance to be higher than the present-day BSE. Core formation with increasing degrees of alloy – silicate equilibration increasingly the remnant MO in all LEVEs, with C being much more depleted than other LEVEs, leading to subchondritic C/N, C/H, and C/S ratios. (b) Combining early atmospheric loss with core formation cannot offset C loss to the core due to the lower solubility of C relative to the other LEVEs in the silicate MOs. Bulk Earth volatile abundance data are from McDonough, 83 while the alloy – silicate partition coef fi cients in a deep MO (P = 50 GPa, T = 3500 K; e.g. Siebert et al. 104 ) for C, N, S, and H are from the parametrized relationships of Chi et al., 71 Grewal et al., 105 Boujibar et al., 106 and Clesi et al., 107 respectively. Solubility constant data for C, N, S, and H in the silicate melt are from Armstrong et al., et O and","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"3 1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116545503","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.017
C. Magnabosco, J. Biddle, C. Cockell, S. Jungbluth, K. I. Twing
When we ponder the existence of life extending deep into Earth, a phrase from the movie Jurassic Park is often used: that “life finds a way.” Numerous investigations into the continental and marine subsurface have shown that life indeed finds a way to exist deep into the subsurface, provided that physical influences, particularly heat, allow for the existence of biomolecules. In this chapter, we will review what is known about the biogeography, ecology, and evolution of deep life, acknowledging along the way that this field is rapidly developing with every new set of experiments and continued exploration. The subsurface biosphere is loosely defined as the habitable region beneath the soil and sediments where the limits of habitability are typically defined by some physical process (also see Chapter 19, this volume). Current estimates of the habitable volume of the subsurface range from ~2.0 to 2.3 10 km, or roughly twice the volume of our oceans (Table 17.1). This large biosphere is estimated to hold ~70% of all bacterial and archaeal cells (Figures 17.1 and 17.2) and potentially over 80% all bacterial and archaeal species (for a review, see 1). A variety of habitats and sampling techniques to study the subsurface biosphere have been explored by scientists for nearly a century and are further described throughout this chapter (Sections 17.1.1–17.1.5; also see Figure 16.1 in Chapter 16, this volume).
{"title":"Biogeography, Ecology, and Evolution of Deep Life","authors":"C. Magnabosco, J. Biddle, C. Cockell, S. Jungbluth, K. I. Twing","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.017","url":null,"abstract":"When we ponder the existence of life extending deep into Earth, a phrase from the movie Jurassic Park is often used: that “life finds a way.” Numerous investigations into the continental and marine subsurface have shown that life indeed finds a way to exist deep into the subsurface, provided that physical influences, particularly heat, allow for the existence of biomolecules. In this chapter, we will review what is known about the biogeography, ecology, and evolution of deep life, acknowledging along the way that this field is rapidly developing with every new set of experiments and continued exploration. The subsurface biosphere is loosely defined as the habitable region beneath the soil and sediments where the limits of habitability are typically defined by some physical process (also see Chapter 19, this volume). Current estimates of the habitable volume of the subsurface range from ~2.0 to 2.3 10 km, or roughly twice the volume of our oceans (Table 17.1). This large biosphere is estimated to hold ~70% of all bacterial and archaeal cells (Figures 17.1 and 17.2) and potentially over 80% all bacterial and archaeal species (for a review, see 1). A variety of habitats and sampling techniques to study the subsurface biosphere have been explored by scientists for nearly a century and are further described throughout this chapter (Sections 17.1.1–17.1.5; also see Figure 16.1 in Chapter 16, this volume).","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"34 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126128221","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.008
C. Werner, T. Fischer, A. Aiuppa, M. Edmonds, C. Cardellini, S. Carn, G. Chiodini, E. Cottrell, M. Burton, H. Shinohara, P. Allard
{"title":"Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Subaerial Volcanic Regions","authors":"C. Werner, T. Fischer, A. Aiuppa, M. Edmonds, C. Cardellini, S. Carn, G. Chiodini, E. Cottrell, M. Burton, H. Shinohara, P. Allard","doi":"10.1017/9781108677950.008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677950.008","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":146724,"journal":{"name":"Deep Carbon","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2019-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132271541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108677950.007
F. Gaillard, N. Sator, E. Gardes, B. Guillot, M. Massuyeau, D. Sifre, T. Hammouda, G. Richard
Significant investment in new capacities for experimental research at high temperatures and pressures have provided new levels of understanding about the physical properties of carbon in fluids and melts, including its viscosity, electrical conductivity, and density. This chapter reviews the physical properties of carbon-bearing melts and fluids at high temperatures and pressures and highlights remaining unknowns left to be explored. The chapter also reviews how the remote sensing of the inaccessible parts of the Earth via various geophysical techniques – seismic shear wave velocity, attenuation, and electromagnetic signals of mantle depths – can be reconciled with the potential presence of carbon-bearing melts or fluids
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