Pub Date : 2024-02-02DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae010
B A Halverson, A Emerson, J Hammer, J Lira, A Whittington
Rocks produced by diverse processes, from condensation in space to impacts on planetary surfaces to volcanism, contain both crystals and amorphous material. Crystallinity provides information on the thermal history of the sample and is especially important in characterizing volcanic rocks and pyroclasts because lava rheology is profoundly influenced by the crystal content. Crystallinity is typically quantified via microscopy, using transmitted light or backscattered electrons. However, many samples present visibly ambiguous textures such as intimate intergrowth of crystal phases, and/or crystal sizes extending down to the nanometer scale. Here we apply calorimetric methods involving heat capacity and enthalpy to assess the crystallinity of a series of volcanic samples. We tested three different approaches, using differential scanning calorimetry, on 30-40 mg aliquots of powdered basalts from the 2018 Kīlauea lower East Rift Zone. The first approach involves determining the magnitude of the increase in heat capacity at the glass transition , which can determine crystallinity to a 1𝜎 precision of ±3%. The second approach is based on the enthalpy of fusion, which requires a longer more complex procedure with results that are typically more uncertain than for the heat capacity method, with a 1𝜎 of ±6%. A final method utilizing differences in enthalpies calculated from the heat capacities required the most complex procedure, and has the greatest uncertainty of ±18%. Preliminary results for lavas with microscopically determined crystallinities ranging from 11-98% indicate that crystallinity based on calorimetric data can be tens of percent higher than the average value identified using microscopy and petrographic analysis. Image-based methodologies applied to sections of samples reveal spatial heterogeneity and details in texture and crystallinity, whereas calorimetry-based methodologies capture the overall "bulk sample" properties, unbiased by section effects or imaging resolution limits. These techniques are a powerful combination that can present complementary views of crystallinity.
{"title":"Estimates of Crystallinity utilizing Differential Scanning Calorimetry: Application to the Kīlauea 2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption","authors":"B A Halverson, A Emerson, J Hammer, J Lira, A Whittington","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae010","url":null,"abstract":"Rocks produced by diverse processes, from condensation in space to impacts on planetary surfaces to volcanism, contain both crystals and amorphous material. Crystallinity provides information on the thermal history of the sample and is especially important in characterizing volcanic rocks and pyroclasts because lava rheology is profoundly influenced by the crystal content. Crystallinity is typically quantified via microscopy, using transmitted light or backscattered electrons. However, many samples present visibly ambiguous textures such as intimate intergrowth of crystal phases, and/or crystal sizes extending down to the nanometer scale. Here we apply calorimetric methods involving heat capacity and enthalpy to assess the crystallinity of a series of volcanic samples. We tested three different approaches, using differential scanning calorimetry, on 30-40 mg aliquots of powdered basalts from the 2018 Kīlauea lower East Rift Zone. The first approach involves determining the magnitude of the increase in heat capacity at the glass transition , which can determine crystallinity to a 1𝜎 precision of ±3%. The second approach is based on the enthalpy of fusion, which requires a longer more complex procedure with results that are typically more uncertain than for the heat capacity method, with a 1𝜎 of ±6%. A final method utilizing differences in enthalpies calculated from the heat capacities required the most complex procedure, and has the greatest uncertainty of ±18%. Preliminary results for lavas with microscopically determined crystallinities ranging from 11-98% indicate that crystallinity based on calorimetric data can be tens of percent higher than the average value identified using microscopy and petrographic analysis. Image-based methodologies applied to sections of samples reveal spatial heterogeneity and details in texture and crystallinity, whereas calorimetry-based methodologies capture the overall \"bulk sample\" properties, unbiased by section effects or imaging resolution limits. These techniques are a powerful combination that can present complementary views of crystallinity.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"3 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-02-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139762600","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-30DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae006
Thomas D van Gerve, David A Neave, Penny Wieser, Hector Lamadrid, Niels Hulsbosch, Olivier Namur
Constraining the initial differentiation of primary mantle melts is vital for understanding magmatic systems as a whole. Chemical compositions of olivine-hosted melt inclusions preserve unique information about the mantle sources, crystallisation behaviour and volatile budgets of such melts. Crucially, melt inclusion CO2 contents can be linked to mantle CO2 budgets and inform us on Earth’s carbon fluxes and cycles. However, determining total inclusion CO2 contents is not straightforward, as they often need to be reconstructed from CO2 dissolved in melts and CO2 stored in a vapour bubble. Here, we improve upon existing reconstruction methods by combining 3D X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT) with geochemical microanalyses of major, trace and volatile elements. We show that in comparison to CT data, traditional reconstruction methods using 2D photomicrographs can underestimate CO2 budgets by more than 40%. We applied our improved methods to basaltic olivine-hosted melt inclusions from Pico volcano (Azores) in order constrain the formation and differentiation of volatile-rich primary melts in the context of a mantle plume. Results for these inclusions yielded 1935–9275 μg/g reconstructed total CO2, some of the highest values reported for ocean island volcanoes to date. Using these CO2 concentrations, we calculate entrapment pressures of 105–754 MPa that indicate a magma reservoir comprising stacked sills straddling the crust-mantle boundary. In the magma reservoir, crystallisation of volatile saturated melts drives extensive degassing, leading to fractionated CO2/Ba ratios of 3.5–62.2 and a loss of over 79% of primary mantle-derived CO2. Variabilities in trace elements (La, Y) show that differentiation occurred by concurrent mixing and crystallisation of two endmember melts, respectively depleted and enriched in trace elements. Geochemical models show that enriched endmember melts constitute 33 wt.% of all melts supplied to the crust at Pico and that primary melts underwent 60% crystallisation prior to eruption. Mantle melting models indicate that the enriched and depleted primary melt endmembers are low- and high-degree melts of carbon-poor lherzolite and carbon-rich pyroxenite respectively. Moreover, since deep magmas at Pico island are dominantly pyroxenite derived, their CO2-enrichement is mainly controlled by mantle source carbon content. Overall, our study illustrates that by combining 3D imaging, geochemical microanalyses and numerical modelling, melt inclusions provide a unique record of differentiation and storage of deep magmas, as well as mantle melting.
{"title":"The origin and differentiation of CO2-rich primary melts in Ocean Island volcanoes: Integrating 3D X-ray tomography with chemical microanalysis of olivine-hosted melt inclusions from Pico (Azores)","authors":"Thomas D van Gerve, David A Neave, Penny Wieser, Hector Lamadrid, Niels Hulsbosch, Olivier Namur","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae006","url":null,"abstract":"Constraining the initial differentiation of primary mantle melts is vital for understanding magmatic systems as a whole. Chemical compositions of olivine-hosted melt inclusions preserve unique information about the mantle sources, crystallisation behaviour and volatile budgets of such melts. Crucially, melt inclusion CO2 contents can be linked to mantle CO2 budgets and inform us on Earth’s carbon fluxes and cycles. However, determining total inclusion CO2 contents is not straightforward, as they often need to be reconstructed from CO2 dissolved in melts and CO2 stored in a vapour bubble. Here, we improve upon existing reconstruction methods by combining 3D X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT) with geochemical microanalyses of major, trace and volatile elements. We show that in comparison to CT data, traditional reconstruction methods using 2D photomicrographs can underestimate CO2 budgets by more than 40%. We applied our improved methods to basaltic olivine-hosted melt inclusions from Pico volcano (Azores) in order constrain the formation and differentiation of volatile-rich primary melts in the context of a mantle plume. Results for these inclusions yielded 1935–9275 μg/g reconstructed total CO2, some of the highest values reported for ocean island volcanoes to date. Using these CO2 concentrations, we calculate entrapment pressures of 105–754 MPa that indicate a magma reservoir comprising stacked sills straddling the crust-mantle boundary. In the magma reservoir, crystallisation of volatile saturated melts drives extensive degassing, leading to fractionated CO2/Ba ratios of 3.5–62.2 and a loss of over 79% of primary mantle-derived CO2. Variabilities in trace elements (La, Y) show that differentiation occurred by concurrent mixing and crystallisation of two endmember melts, respectively depleted and enriched in trace elements. Geochemical models show that enriched endmember melts constitute 33 wt.% of all melts supplied to the crust at Pico and that primary melts underwent 60% crystallisation prior to eruption. Mantle melting models indicate that the enriched and depleted primary melt endmembers are low- and high-degree melts of carbon-poor lherzolite and carbon-rich pyroxenite respectively. Moreover, since deep magmas at Pico island are dominantly pyroxenite derived, their CO2-enrichement is mainly controlled by mantle source carbon content. Overall, our study illustrates that by combining 3D imaging, geochemical microanalyses and numerical modelling, melt inclusions provide a unique record of differentiation and storage of deep magmas, as well as mantle melting.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"9 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139644794","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-30DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae004
Pavel Pitra, Francisco José Martínez
Metapelitic rocks from Cap de Creus (Eastern Pyrenees, Spain) have developed andalusite±cordierite-bearing assemblages during the Variscan low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. Andalusite crystals are commonly transformed to very fine-grained assemblages containing white micas with various combinations of staurolite, kyanite, chloritoid, and/or biotite, chlorite, corundum. The hydrous character of the replacement minerals (pseudomorphing anhydrous andalusite) and the fact that transformation locally occurs along fractures, suggests that it was enhanced by fluid circulation. Using calculated equilibrium-assemblage phase diagrams (pseudosections) for the analysed whole-rock compositions, the equilibration of the primary andalusite-bearing assemblage is constrained at ~3±1 kbar and ~550±30°C. The presence in the pseudomorphs of kyanite and staurolite, typical of Barrovian-type metamorphism, could suggest a pressure increase. However, P–T–M(H2O) modelling of phase equilibria for local bulk compositions of the pseudomorphed andalusite porphyroblasts points to the crystallisation of the observed pseudomorphs at low pressures (~2.5 kbar) and variable, but relatively low temperatures (~370–500°C), in an H2O-undersaturated environment due to the incomplete character of the hydration. In other words, the fluid incursion triggered the crystallisation of the hydrous pseudomorphing assemblages, but the fluid was consumed during this process, leading finally to fluid-absent, H2O-undersaturated conditions. This highlights the critical importance of considering the effects of H2O undersaturation during metamorphism. The partial hydration can be tentatively attributed to a prograde hydrothermal overprint associated with the development of shear zones during Jurassic stretching of a cooled Variscan crust, rather than ‘simple’ late-Variscan retrogression.
{"title":"Incomplete hydration during ‘retrograde’ metamorphism: ‘Barrovian’ kyanite-, staurolite-, chloritoid-bearing pseudomorphs after andalusite (Cap de Creus, E Pyrenees, Spain)","authors":"Pavel Pitra, Francisco José Martínez","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae004","url":null,"abstract":"Metapelitic rocks from Cap de Creus (Eastern Pyrenees, Spain) have developed andalusite±cordierite-bearing assemblages during the Variscan low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. Andalusite crystals are commonly transformed to very fine-grained assemblages containing white micas with various combinations of staurolite, kyanite, chloritoid, and/or biotite, chlorite, corundum. The hydrous character of the replacement minerals (pseudomorphing anhydrous andalusite) and the fact that transformation locally occurs along fractures, suggests that it was enhanced by fluid circulation. Using calculated equilibrium-assemblage phase diagrams (pseudosections) for the analysed whole-rock compositions, the equilibration of the primary andalusite-bearing assemblage is constrained at ~3±1 kbar and ~550±30°C. The presence in the pseudomorphs of kyanite and staurolite, typical of Barrovian-type metamorphism, could suggest a pressure increase. However, P–T–M(H2O) modelling of phase equilibria for local bulk compositions of the pseudomorphed andalusite porphyroblasts points to the crystallisation of the observed pseudomorphs at low pressures (~2.5 kbar) and variable, but relatively low temperatures (~370–500°C), in an H2O-undersaturated environment due to the incomplete character of the hydration. In other words, the fluid incursion triggered the crystallisation of the hydrous pseudomorphing assemblages, but the fluid was consumed during this process, leading finally to fluid-absent, H2O-undersaturated conditions. This highlights the critical importance of considering the effects of H2O undersaturation during metamorphism. The partial hydration can be tentatively attributed to a prograde hydrothermal overprint associated with the development of shear zones during Jurassic stretching of a cooled Variscan crust, rather than ‘simple’ late-Variscan retrogression.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"60 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139645068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-30DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae005
Philip Hartmeier, Pierre Lanari, Jacob B Forshaw, Thorsten A Markmann
The kinetics of fluid-driven metamorphic reactions are challenging to study in nature because of the tendency of metamorphic systems to converge towards chemical equilibrium. However, in cases where mineral textures that reflect incomplete reactions are preserved, kinetic processes may be investigated. Atoll garnet, a texture formed by the dissolution of a garnet’s core, has been described in 2D from thin sections of rocks worldwide. Quantifying the extent of this dissolution reaction requires sample-wide examination of hundreds of individual grains in 3D. In this study, we quantified the distribution of atoll garnet using micro-computed tomography and grain shape analysis. A convolutional neural network was trained on human-labelled garnet grains for automated garnet classification. This approach was applied to a retrogressed mafic eclogite from the Zermatt-Saas Zone (Western Alps). Pervasive atoll-like resorption preferentially affected the larger porphyroblasts, suggesting that compositional zoning patterns exert a first-order control on dissolution rates. A kinetic model shows that the reactivity of metastable garnet to form atolls is favored at pressure-temperature conditions of 560±30 °C and 1.6±0.2 GPa. These conditions coincide with the release of water when lawsonite breaks down during exhumation of mafic eclogites. The model predicts dissolution rates that are 3–5 times faster for the garnet core than for the rim. This study shows that deep learning algorithms can perform automated textural analysis of crystal shapes in 3D and that these datasets have the potential to elucidate petrological processes, such as the kinetics of fluid-driven metamorphic reactions.
{"title":"Tracking garnet dissolution kinetics in 3D using deep learning grain shape classification","authors":"Philip Hartmeier, Pierre Lanari, Jacob B Forshaw, Thorsten A Markmann","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae005","url":null,"abstract":"The kinetics of fluid-driven metamorphic reactions are challenging to study in nature because of the tendency of metamorphic systems to converge towards chemical equilibrium. However, in cases where mineral textures that reflect incomplete reactions are preserved, kinetic processes may be investigated. Atoll garnet, a texture formed by the dissolution of a garnet’s core, has been described in 2D from thin sections of rocks worldwide. Quantifying the extent of this dissolution reaction requires sample-wide examination of hundreds of individual grains in 3D. In this study, we quantified the distribution of atoll garnet using micro-computed tomography and grain shape analysis. A convolutional neural network was trained on human-labelled garnet grains for automated garnet classification. This approach was applied to a retrogressed mafic eclogite from the Zermatt-Saas Zone (Western Alps). Pervasive atoll-like resorption preferentially affected the larger porphyroblasts, suggesting that compositional zoning patterns exert a first-order control on dissolution rates. A kinetic model shows that the reactivity of metastable garnet to form atolls is favored at pressure-temperature conditions of 560±30 °C and 1.6±0.2 GPa. These conditions coincide with the release of water when lawsonite breaks down during exhumation of mafic eclogites. The model predicts dissolution rates that are 3–5 times faster for the garnet core than for the rim. This study shows that deep learning algorithms can perform automated textural analysis of crystal shapes in 3D and that these datasets have the potential to elucidate petrological processes, such as the kinetics of fluid-driven metamorphic reactions.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"37 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139644647","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-17DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae003
Chang-Yu Zhu, Huan Chen, Yan-Tao Hao
Many minerals within the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) contain structurally bonded hydrogen (commonly referred to as “water”), which significantly impacts their physical properties and associated geodynamic processes. Observations from different localities worldwide make understanding the behavior of hydrogen during partial melting and mantle metasomatism a contentious issue, as different localities reveal either melting or metasomatism as the controlling factor. To provide new insights, major elements, trace elements and water contents of peridotite xenoliths from three volcanoes of the Shuangliao Volcano Group in Northeast China were analyzed. Minerals display variations in major and trace elements, particularly in clinopyroxene. Most olivine contain no observable water, while orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene retained 14-157 μg/g and 46-351 μg/g of water, respectively. Samples were divided into 3 types according to trace element patterns, namely, type 1: Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE)-depleted samples; type 2: “spoon-shaped” samples featuring slight enrichment of the most incompatible elements (La and Ce) and relative depletion of Mid-REE; and type 3: LREE-enriched samples. Combined with major element trends, the Shuangliao SCLM experienced varying degrees of partial melting and cryptic metasomatism. Different water contents in the Shuangliao SCLM are a combined result of melting and metasomatism: less metasomatized samples (LREE-depleted and “spoon-shaped”) preserved the control of water contents by partial melting, while strongly metasomatized samples (LREE-enriched), equilibrated at higher oxygen fugacity and temperature, display considerable post-melting modifications of water contents, possibly associated with Fe redox. These characteristics suggest that hydrous and oxidized melts/fluids likely released by the stagnant Pacific slab in the Big Mantle Wedge (BMW) have metasomatized the shallow SCLM beneath Shuangliao, which indicates the circulation of materials released by the stagnant slab throughout the upper mantle.
{"title":"The effects of partial melting and metasomatism on peridotite water contents: insights from Shuangliao Volcano Group, Northeast China","authors":"Chang-Yu Zhu, Huan Chen, Yan-Tao Hao","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae003","url":null,"abstract":"Many minerals within the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) contain structurally bonded hydrogen (commonly referred to as “water”), which significantly impacts their physical properties and associated geodynamic processes. Observations from different localities worldwide make understanding the behavior of hydrogen during partial melting and mantle metasomatism a contentious issue, as different localities reveal either melting or metasomatism as the controlling factor. To provide new insights, major elements, trace elements and water contents of peridotite xenoliths from three volcanoes of the Shuangliao Volcano Group in Northeast China were analyzed. Minerals display variations in major and trace elements, particularly in clinopyroxene. Most olivine contain no observable water, while orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene retained 14-157 μg/g and 46-351 μg/g of water, respectively. Samples were divided into 3 types according to trace element patterns, namely, type 1: Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE)-depleted samples; type 2: “spoon-shaped” samples featuring slight enrichment of the most incompatible elements (La and Ce) and relative depletion of Mid-REE; and type 3: LREE-enriched samples. Combined with major element trends, the Shuangliao SCLM experienced varying degrees of partial melting and cryptic metasomatism. Different water contents in the Shuangliao SCLM are a combined result of melting and metasomatism: less metasomatized samples (LREE-depleted and “spoon-shaped”) preserved the control of water contents by partial melting, while strongly metasomatized samples (LREE-enriched), equilibrated at higher oxygen fugacity and temperature, display considerable post-melting modifications of water contents, possibly associated with Fe redox. These characteristics suggest that hydrous and oxidized melts/fluids likely released by the stagnant Pacific slab in the Big Mantle Wedge (BMW) have metasomatized the shallow SCLM beneath Shuangliao, which indicates the circulation of materials released by the stagnant slab throughout the upper mantle.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"99 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139482666","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-17DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae002
Azhar M Shaikh, Sebastian Tappe, Fanus Viljoen, Mike C J de Wit
The continental lithospheric mantle (CLM) beneath the southern margin of the Congo craton has remained elusive mainly because of thick Phanerozoic sedimentary cover concealing possible kimberlite and lamproite diatremes. In this study, we explore this lithospheric mantle section by using major and trace element compositions of mantle-derived clinopyroxene and garnet xenocrysts from kimberlites of the ca. 84 Ma Nxau Nxau cluster in NW Botswana, which is part of the poorly known Xaudum kimberlite province extending into northern Namibia. We utilize these data to better understand the thermal and compositional evolution of the lithospheric mantle at the southern margin of the Congo craton. The clinopyroxene population (83 individual grains) comprises Cr-rich and Cr-poor diopsides with variable major (Al2O3, Na2O, Mg#) and incompatible trace element (U, Th, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, REEs) compositions. The large garnet population studied (496 individual grains) is dominated by lherzolitic G9 (38%) and `megacrystic´ G1 (41%) compositions, with minor contributions from Ti-metasomatized G11 (7%) and eclogitic G3 (6%) cratonic mantle sources. Harzburgitic G10 garnet is very rare (two grains only), consistent with a lherzolite-dominated CLM section in a craton margin position. The eclogitic garnet population has compositions akin to garnet from high-Mg cratonic mantle eclogite xenoliths, and such compositions have recently been interpreted as metasomatic in origin within the mantle xenoliths literature. Pressure–temperature calculations using the single-grain clinopyroxene technique reveal a relatively cold cratonic geotherm of 37-38 mW/m2 for the study region during the Late Mesozoic. For peridotitic garnets, projections of calculated Ni-in-garnet temperatures onto the independently constrained regional conductive geotherm suggest that lherzolite dominates at <145 km depths, whereas high-Ti lherzolitic G11 garnets and `megacrystic´ G1 garnets originate mostly from greater depths, down to the lithosphere base at 150 to 210 km depth. The apparent confinement of ´megacrystic´ G1 garnet to the bottom of the lithosphere suggests formation from infiltrating asthenosphere-derived proto-kimberlite liquids during melt–rock interactions. In general, the data suggest that the CLM beneath NW Botswana is depleted to about 145 km depth, and between 145-210 km depths a thick metasomatized layer is identified, representing the transition into the underlying asthenosphere. A relatively thin lithosphere beneath NW Botswana is consistent with the proposed craton margin setting, especially when compared to the thicker cratonic roots beneath the central regions of the Congo and Kalahari cratons in Angola and South Africa, respectively, reaching down to 250 km depth and possibly even deeper. The compositional dissimilarity between the deepest-derived garnets from kimberlites in NW Botswana (i.e., from the diamond stability field) and garnets that occur as inclusions in diamond f
{"title":"The elusive Congo craton margin during Gondwana breakup: Insights from lithospheric mantle structure and heat-flow beneath the Xaudum kimberlite province, NW Botswana","authors":"Azhar M Shaikh, Sebastian Tappe, Fanus Viljoen, Mike C J de Wit","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae002","url":null,"abstract":"The continental lithospheric mantle (CLM) beneath the southern margin of the Congo craton has remained elusive mainly because of thick Phanerozoic sedimentary cover concealing possible kimberlite and lamproite diatremes. In this study, we explore this lithospheric mantle section by using major and trace element compositions of mantle-derived clinopyroxene and garnet xenocrysts from kimberlites of the ca. 84 Ma Nxau Nxau cluster in NW Botswana, which is part of the poorly known Xaudum kimberlite province extending into northern Namibia. We utilize these data to better understand the thermal and compositional evolution of the lithospheric mantle at the southern margin of the Congo craton. The clinopyroxene population (83 individual grains) comprises Cr-rich and Cr-poor diopsides with variable major (Al2O3, Na2O, Mg#) and incompatible trace element (U, Th, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, REEs) compositions. The large garnet population studied (496 individual grains) is dominated by lherzolitic G9 (38%) and `megacrystic´ G1 (41%) compositions, with minor contributions from Ti-metasomatized G11 (7%) and eclogitic G3 (6%) cratonic mantle sources. Harzburgitic G10 garnet is very rare (two grains only), consistent with a lherzolite-dominated CLM section in a craton margin position. The eclogitic garnet population has compositions akin to garnet from high-Mg cratonic mantle eclogite xenoliths, and such compositions have recently been interpreted as metasomatic in origin within the mantle xenoliths literature. Pressure–temperature calculations using the single-grain clinopyroxene technique reveal a relatively cold cratonic geotherm of 37-38 mW/m2 for the study region during the Late Mesozoic. For peridotitic garnets, projections of calculated Ni-in-garnet temperatures onto the independently constrained regional conductive geotherm suggest that lherzolite dominates at &lt;145 km depths, whereas high-Ti lherzolitic G11 garnets and `megacrystic´ G1 garnets originate mostly from greater depths, down to the lithosphere base at 150 to 210 km depth. The apparent confinement of ´megacrystic´ G1 garnet to the bottom of the lithosphere suggests formation from infiltrating asthenosphere-derived proto-kimberlite liquids during melt–rock interactions. In general, the data suggest that the CLM beneath NW Botswana is depleted to about 145 km depth, and between 145-210 km depths a thick metasomatized layer is identified, representing the transition into the underlying asthenosphere. A relatively thin lithosphere beneath NW Botswana is consistent with the proposed craton margin setting, especially when compared to the thicker cratonic roots beneath the central regions of the Congo and Kalahari cratons in Angola and South Africa, respectively, reaching down to 250 km depth and possibly even deeper. The compositional dissimilarity between the deepest-derived garnets from kimberlites in NW Botswana (i.e., from the diamond stability field) and garnets that occur as inclusions in diamond f","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"25 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139482534","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-01-17DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egae001
Marian B Holness, Jens C Ø Andersen, Olivier Namur, Troels F D Nielsen
The roof-derived autoliths in the floor cumulates of the Skaergaard Intrusion have been argued to have been extensively metasomatized and recrystallised, forming the foundation of the hypothesis that microstructures in plutonic rocks are essentially metamorphic. However, the augite-plagioclase-plagioclase dihedral angles and plagioclase core composition of the autoliths match with those of the roof rocks, demonstrating that they were generally solid on arrival at the floor, with no subsequent microstructural or compositional modification. Many autoliths have mafic rinds, which were used as evidence of metasomatism: these rinds fall into two groups. The rarely developed rind rock of Irvine et al. (1998) is most likely chilled magma infiltrating along fractures in the roof rocks, either associated directly with detachment of roof material, or occurring before final detachment. Thin mafic rims are widespread in LZc and MZ, present at the tops of the more elongate autoliths, with a corresponding felsic rim at the base of the most elongate. The close correspondence of thin rim development with autolith shape, rather than composition, is argued to be evidence that they formed as a result of differential migration of immiscible conjugate interstitial liquids: the dense Fe-rich liquid flowed downwards and ponded on the tops of impermeable autoliths, whereas its buoyant Si-rich conjugate flowed upwards and was trapped underneath. Any differences in microstructure and bulk composition of the autoliths compared to the remaining exposures of the roof sequence reflect the wider range of lithologies in the now-eroded regions of the roof.
{"title":"Are microstructures in plutonic rocks primary or secondary?: a re-examination of the metasomatism hypothesis for the roof-sourced autoliths in the Skaergaard intrusion","authors":"Marian B Holness, Jens C Ø Andersen, Olivier Namur, Troels F D Nielsen","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egae001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egae001","url":null,"abstract":"The roof-derived autoliths in the floor cumulates of the Skaergaard Intrusion have been argued to have been extensively metasomatized and recrystallised, forming the foundation of the hypothesis that microstructures in plutonic rocks are essentially metamorphic. However, the augite-plagioclase-plagioclase dihedral angles and plagioclase core composition of the autoliths match with those of the roof rocks, demonstrating that they were generally solid on arrival at the floor, with no subsequent microstructural or compositional modification. Many autoliths have mafic rinds, which were used as evidence of metasomatism: these rinds fall into two groups. The rarely developed rind rock of Irvine et al. (1998) is most likely chilled magma infiltrating along fractures in the roof rocks, either associated directly with detachment of roof material, or occurring before final detachment. Thin mafic rims are widespread in LZc and MZ, present at the tops of the more elongate autoliths, with a corresponding felsic rim at the base of the most elongate. The close correspondence of thin rim development with autolith shape, rather than composition, is argued to be evidence that they formed as a result of differential migration of immiscible conjugate interstitial liquids: the dense Fe-rich liquid flowed downwards and ponded on the tops of impermeable autoliths, whereas its buoyant Si-rich conjugate flowed upwards and was trapped underneath. Any differences in microstructure and bulk composition of the autoliths compared to the remaining exposures of the roof sequence reflect the wider range of lithologies in the now-eroded regions of the roof.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"21 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139482669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Compositional variations of amphibole stratigraphically recovered from multiple eruptions at a given volcano have a great potential to archive long-term magmatic processes in its crustal plumbing system. Calcic amphibole is a ubiquitous yet chemically and texturally diverse mineral at Mount St. Helens (MSH), where it occurs in dacites and in co-magmatic enclaves throughout the Spirit Lake stage (last ~4000 years of eruptive history). It forms three populations with distinct geochemical trends in key major and trace elements, which are subdivided into a high-Al (11–14.5 wt% Al2O3), a medium-Al (10–12.5 wt% Al2O3), and a low-Al (7.5–10 wt% Al2O3) amphibole population. The oldest investigated tephra record (Smith Creek period, 3900–3300 years B.P.) yields a bimodal amphibole distribution in which lower-crustal, high-Al amphibole cores (crystallized dominantly from basaltic andesite to andesite melts) and upper-crustal, low-Al amphibole rims (crystallized from rhyolitic melt) document occasional recharge of a shallow silicic mush by a more mafic melt from a lower-crustal reservoir. The sudden appearance of medium-Al amphiboles enriched in incompatible trace elements in eruptive periods younger than 2900 years B.P. is associated with a change in reservoir conditions towards hotter and drier magmas, which indicates recharge of the shallow silicic reservoir by basaltic melt enriched in incompatible elements. Deep-crystallizing, high-Al amphibole, however, appears mostly unaffected by such incompatible-element-enriched basaltic recharge, suggesting that these basalts bypass the lower crustal reservoir. This could be the result of the eastward offset position of the lower crustal reservoir relative to the upper crustal storage zone underneath the MSH edifice. Amphibole has proven to be a sensitive geochemical archive for uncovering storage conditions of magmas at Mount St. Helens. In agreement with geophysical observations, storage and differentiation have occurred in two main zones: an upper crustal and lower crustal reservoir (the lower one being chemically less evolved). The upper crustal silicic reservoir, offset to the west of the lower crustal reservoir, has captured compositionally unusual mafic recharge (drier, hotter, and enriched in incompatible trace elements in comparison to the typical parental magmas in the region), resulting in an increased chemical diversity of amphiboles and their carrier intermediate magmas, in the last ~3000 years of Mount St. Helens’s volcanic record.
{"title":"An amphibole perspective on the recent magmatic evolution of Mount St. Helens","authors":"Franziska Keller, Maren Wanke, Nico Kueter, Marcel Guillong, Olivier Bachmann","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egad093","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egad093","url":null,"abstract":"Compositional variations of amphibole stratigraphically recovered from multiple eruptions at a given volcano have a great potential to archive long-term magmatic processes in its crustal plumbing system. Calcic amphibole is a ubiquitous yet chemically and texturally diverse mineral at Mount St. Helens (MSH), where it occurs in dacites and in co-magmatic enclaves throughout the Spirit Lake stage (last ~4000 years of eruptive history). It forms three populations with distinct geochemical trends in key major and trace elements, which are subdivided into a high-Al (11–14.5 wt% Al2O3), a medium-Al (10–12.5 wt% Al2O3), and a low-Al (7.5–10 wt% Al2O3) amphibole population. The oldest investigated tephra record (Smith Creek period, 3900–3300 years B.P.) yields a bimodal amphibole distribution in which lower-crustal, high-Al amphibole cores (crystallized dominantly from basaltic andesite to andesite melts) and upper-crustal, low-Al amphibole rims (crystallized from rhyolitic melt) document occasional recharge of a shallow silicic mush by a more mafic melt from a lower-crustal reservoir. The sudden appearance of medium-Al amphiboles enriched in incompatible trace elements in eruptive periods younger than 2900 years B.P. is associated with a change in reservoir conditions towards hotter and drier magmas, which indicates recharge of the shallow silicic reservoir by basaltic melt enriched in incompatible elements. Deep-crystallizing, high-Al amphibole, however, appears mostly unaffected by such incompatible-element-enriched basaltic recharge, suggesting that these basalts bypass the lower crustal reservoir. This could be the result of the eastward offset position of the lower crustal reservoir relative to the upper crustal storage zone underneath the MSH edifice. Amphibole has proven to be a sensitive geochemical archive for uncovering storage conditions of magmas at Mount St. Helens. In agreement with geophysical observations, storage and differentiation have occurred in two main zones: an upper crustal and lower crustal reservoir (the lower one being chemically less evolved). The upper crustal silicic reservoir, offset to the west of the lower crustal reservoir, has captured compositionally unusual mafic recharge (drier, hotter, and enriched in incompatible trace elements in comparison to the typical parental magmas in the region), resulting in an increased chemical diversity of amphiboles and their carrier intermediate magmas, in the last ~3000 years of Mount St. Helens’s volcanic record.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"48 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2024-01-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139412699","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-12-15DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egad091
Yue Qi, Qiang Wang, Gang-Jian Wei, Xiu-Zheng Zhang, Wei Dan, Zong-Yong Yang, Lu-Lu Hao, Wan-Long Hu
High-MgO (> 9 wt.%) basaltic rocks can be primary magmas and used to constrain the geochemistry and temperature of the mantle. However, high MgO contents can also result from mixing between evolved melts and antecrysts or xenocrysts, and thus the whole-rock composition might not represent the solidified equivalents of primary magma. Whether such mixing with crystals can result in erroneous interpretations of mantle processes remains unclear. This study presents a petrological and geochemical investigation of the post-collision high-MgO (> 9 wt.%) Lugu volcanic rocks in the southern Qiangtang terrane, central Tibet. The Lugu volcanic rocks comprise porphyritic and intersertal alkali basalts. Zircon U–Pb ages and 40Ar/39Ar dating suggest that the two types of alkali basalts were erupted at ca. 29 Ma. Based on detailed petrographic observations and geochemical analysis, the porphyritic alkali basalts may represent near-primary melts, which are characterised by low SiO2 contents (40.9–45.1 wt.%), high CaO/Al2O3 ratios (1.1–1.5), and arc-like trace element patterns. We suggest these basalts were derived by partial melting of enriched garnet peridotite (> 3GPa) in the presence of H2O and CO2. These geochemical features are different from those of the ca. 30 Ma (ultra)-potassic rocks in the Qiangtang terrane, indicating that heterogeneous lithospheric mantle existed beneath the Qiangtang terrane during the Oligocene. In contrast, although the intersertal alkali basalts have high MgO contents (> 9 wt.%), evidence from mineral chemistry indicates that whole-rock compositions of the intersertal alkali basalts represent mixtures of evolved residual melts and cumulate crystals. They were the product of polybaric fractional crystallisation and subsequent mixing of crystals and residual melts in a magmatic plumbing system. Furthermore, when intersertal alkali basalts are assumed to be primary melts, they would have been derived by partial melting of shallow (~2.5 GPa) CO2-poor pyroxenite or peridotite. These conditions are different from interpretations of the nature of mantle source and melting conditions for porphyritic alkali basalts. Our results highlight that the interpretation of petrogenetic processes should be preceded by detailed mineralogical investigations.
{"title":"Oligocene high-MgO alkali basalts in central Tibet: implications for magma–mush mixing and mantle processes","authors":"Yue Qi, Qiang Wang, Gang-Jian Wei, Xiu-Zheng Zhang, Wei Dan, Zong-Yong Yang, Lu-Lu Hao, Wan-Long Hu","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egad091","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egad091","url":null,"abstract":"High-MgO (&gt; 9 wt.%) basaltic rocks can be primary magmas and used to constrain the geochemistry and temperature of the mantle. However, high MgO contents can also result from mixing between evolved melts and antecrysts or xenocrysts, and thus the whole-rock composition might not represent the solidified equivalents of primary magma. Whether such mixing with crystals can result in erroneous interpretations of mantle processes remains unclear. This study presents a petrological and geochemical investigation of the post-collision high-MgO (&gt; 9 wt.%) Lugu volcanic rocks in the southern Qiangtang terrane, central Tibet. The Lugu volcanic rocks comprise porphyritic and intersertal alkali basalts. Zircon U–Pb ages and 40Ar/39Ar dating suggest that the two types of alkali basalts were erupted at ca. 29 Ma. Based on detailed petrographic observations and geochemical analysis, the porphyritic alkali basalts may represent near-primary melts, which are characterised by low SiO2 contents (40.9–45.1 wt.%), high CaO/Al2O3 ratios (1.1–1.5), and arc-like trace element patterns. We suggest these basalts were derived by partial melting of enriched garnet peridotite (&gt; 3GPa) in the presence of H2O and CO2. These geochemical features are different from those of the ca. 30 Ma (ultra)-potassic rocks in the Qiangtang terrane, indicating that heterogeneous lithospheric mantle existed beneath the Qiangtang terrane during the Oligocene. In contrast, although the intersertal alkali basalts have high MgO contents (&gt; 9 wt.%), evidence from mineral chemistry indicates that whole-rock compositions of the intersertal alkali basalts represent mixtures of evolved residual melts and cumulate crystals. They were the product of polybaric fractional crystallisation and subsequent mixing of crystals and residual melts in a magmatic plumbing system. Furthermore, when intersertal alkali basalts are assumed to be primary melts, they would have been derived by partial melting of shallow (~2.5 GPa) CO2-poor pyroxenite or peridotite. These conditions are different from interpretations of the nature of mantle source and melting conditions for porphyritic alkali basalts. Our results highlight that the interpretation of petrogenetic processes should be preceded by detailed mineralogical investigations.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2023-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138692375","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-12-14DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egad090
L Smithies Sarah, M Gravley Darren, A R Gualda Guilherme
Dome eruptions associated with rhyolitic calderas offer an important insight into how extremely large (>>10 km3), rhyolitic magma systems are constructed through time. We focus on rhyolitic calderas in the central Taupō Volcanic Zone leading to, during, and immediately following the 350 – 240 ka ignimbrite flare-up. We identified 103 dome eruptions that are dated between ca. 650 and 150 ka and collated 239 literature whole-rock compositions from these domes. For each composition, we modelled the pressure of magma extraction from the magma mush and the mineral assemblage of the mush using the rhyolite-MELTS geobarometer. We calculated extraction temperatures using zircon saturation geothermometry. We show that magmas are extracted from typically quartz-bearing magma mush at a wide range of depths (~50 – 425 MPa, ~2 – 16 km) and temperatures (~750 – ~850 °C). Throughout the central TVZ, there are two dominant extraction pressure modes at 1) 150 – 175 MPa and 2) 250 – 325 MPa, consistent with 1) the depth of the brittle-ductile transition (~6 km) and just below typical pre-eruptive storage depths of other TVZ magmas (100 – 150 MPa, ~4 – 6 km); and 2) partial melt regions imaged below ~8 km by previous geophysical studies. In some regions, there is a clear correlation between crustal structures, the depth of magma extraction, and the composition of the magmas. In the Whakamaru caldera, the domes erupted inside the caldera following caldera collapse are extracted from ~225 to ~350 MPa at ~810 °C and have orthopyroxene-bearing compositions dissimilar to the caldera-forming eruption. These domes are aligned along normal faults, suggesting that rifting creates pathways for magma extraction from a deeper mush rejuvenated by recharge. The domes erupted along the structural margins of the Whakamaru caldera have very evolved, hornblende-bearing compositions, similar to the caldera-forming eruption and shallow, colder extraction from ~100 – ~200 MPa at ~770 °C, suggesting the mush feeding these domes is a remnant of the older caldera-forming magma system mobilised along the caldera-bounding faults. Two structural levels of magma extraction at ~6 km and 9 – 12 km are persistent throughout the flare-up period and across the central TVZ region, demonstrating the need for further investigation into the factors controlling the depth of mush development.
{"title":"Connecting the dots: the lava domes’ perspective of magmatism related to an ignimbrite flare-up","authors":"L Smithies Sarah, M Gravley Darren, A R Gualda Guilherme","doi":"10.1093/petrology/egad090","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egad090","url":null,"abstract":"Dome eruptions associated with rhyolitic calderas offer an important insight into how extremely large (&gt;&gt;10 km3), rhyolitic magma systems are constructed through time. We focus on rhyolitic calderas in the central Taupō Volcanic Zone leading to, during, and immediately following the 350 – 240 ka ignimbrite flare-up. We identified 103 dome eruptions that are dated between ca. 650 and 150 ka and collated 239 literature whole-rock compositions from these domes. For each composition, we modelled the pressure of magma extraction from the magma mush and the mineral assemblage of the mush using the rhyolite-MELTS geobarometer. We calculated extraction temperatures using zircon saturation geothermometry. We show that magmas are extracted from typically quartz-bearing magma mush at a wide range of depths (~50 – 425 MPa, ~2 – 16 km) and temperatures (~750 – ~850 °C). Throughout the central TVZ, there are two dominant extraction pressure modes at 1) 150 – 175 MPa and 2) 250 – 325 MPa, consistent with 1) the depth of the brittle-ductile transition (~6 km) and just below typical pre-eruptive storage depths of other TVZ magmas (100 – 150 MPa, ~4 – 6 km); and 2) partial melt regions imaged below ~8 km by previous geophysical studies. In some regions, there is a clear correlation between crustal structures, the depth of magma extraction, and the composition of the magmas. In the Whakamaru caldera, the domes erupted inside the caldera following caldera collapse are extracted from ~225 to ~350 MPa at ~810 °C and have orthopyroxene-bearing compositions dissimilar to the caldera-forming eruption. These domes are aligned along normal faults, suggesting that rifting creates pathways for magma extraction from a deeper mush rejuvenated by recharge. The domes erupted along the structural margins of the Whakamaru caldera have very evolved, hornblende-bearing compositions, similar to the caldera-forming eruption and shallow, colder extraction from ~100 – ~200 MPa at ~770 °C, suggesting the mush feeding these domes is a remnant of the older caldera-forming magma system mobilised along the caldera-bounding faults. Two structural levels of magma extraction at ~6 km and 9 – 12 km are persistent throughout the flare-up period and across the central TVZ region, demonstrating the need for further investigation into the factors controlling the depth of mush development.","PeriodicalId":16751,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Petrology","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2023-12-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138692193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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