Pub Date : 2013-12-01DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139507516.009
R. Clogg
Greece is rich but the Greeks are poor. Andreas Papandreou During the 1990s Greece had one of the fastest growth rates within the European Union, and its status as a fully fledged member of the Union was sealed by acceptance into the eurozone in 2001, with the euro replacing the drachma in 2002. It soon became clear, however, that EU rules relating to the permitted size of the budget deficit had been contravened. Complaints began to be heard about the inflationary effects of the adoption of the new currency, and aggrieved citizens sought to organise an unsuccessful consumer boycott in protest. There were other indications during the early years of the new millennium of a country on an upward trajectory. After almost thirty years, the incubus of the ‘17 November’ terrorist group was brought to an end. During this time it had carried out with impunity assassinations (twenty-three in all) of US military personnel and spies, Turkish and British diplomats, Greek politicians, policemen, newspaper editors, and members of what the group termed the ‘lumpen big bourgeoisie’, shipowners and industrialists. The British military attache, Brigadier Stephen Saunders, was the last victim of ‘17 November’ when, in June 2000, he was shot while his car was stuck in Athens’ notorious traffic. His killing prompted British police to assist the Greek authorities in tracking down those responsible. It was not police intelligence, however, but a blunder on the part of one of the members of the group that was to lead to its dismantling two years later. In June 2002, Savvas Xiros was seriously injured by the premature detonation of an explosive device that he was intending to plant in Piraeus. Two safe houses, and much weaponry, were quickly uncovered. Two of Xiros’ brothers were found to be implicated in what proved to be virtually a family (and money-making) enterprise. Unusually, Xiros combined planting bombs with painting religious icons, but it was clear that the principal source of the group’s funding was bank robbery. After several weeks on the run, Dimitris Koufodinas, a bee-keeper-cum-assassin responsible for many of the killings, turned himself in to the police.
希腊富裕，但希腊人贫穷。上世纪90年代，希腊是欧盟(eu)内经济增速最快的国家之一。2001年，希腊加入欧元区，欧元于2002年取代德拉克马，从而确立了希腊作为欧盟正式成员国的地位。然而，事情很快就变得清晰起来，这违反了欧盟有关预算赤字允许规模的规定。人们开始抱怨采用新货币造成的通货膨胀效应，愤愤不平的市民试图组织一次不成功的消费者抵制活动以示抗议。在新千年的最初几年，还有其他迹象表明，一个国家正处于上升的轨道上。近30年后，“11月17日”恐怖组织的梦魇被终结了。在此期间，它肆无忌惮地暗杀了美国军事人员和间谍、土耳其和英国外交官、希腊政治家、警察、报纸编辑，以及被该组织称为“流氓大资产阶级”的成员、船主和实业家(总共23人)。2000年6月，英国武官斯蒂芬·桑德斯准将(Brigadier Stephen Saunders)是“11月17日”事件的最后一个受害者，当时他的车被堵在雅典臭名昭著的交通堵塞中，他遭到枪击。他的遇害促使英国警方协助希腊当局追查肇事者。然而，这并不是警方的情报，而是该组织一名成员的失误，导致该组织在两年后解散。2002年6月，萨瓦斯·西罗斯因他打算在比雷埃夫斯放置的爆炸装置过早爆炸而严重受伤。两处安全屋和大量武器很快被发现。西罗斯的两个兄弟被发现与一桩实际上是家族(和赚钱的)企业有牵连。不同寻常的是，西罗斯将放置炸弹与绘制宗教图标结合起来，但很明显，该组织的主要资金来源是抢劫银行。在逃亡数周后，Dimitris Koufodinas向警方自首。Dimitris Koufodinas是一名养蜂人兼杀手，对多起杀戮负有责任。
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Pub Date : 2013-12-01DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139507516.006
R. Clogg
The decade of the 1940s was the darkest in Greece’s independent history. The glories of her stand at the time of the Italian and German invasions during the winter of 1940/1 and the heroism of the resistance, both collective and individual, to the barbaric German, Italian and Bulgarian occupation had brought in their wake privations on an unprecedented scale. Moreover, famine, reprisals and wanton material destruction, together with the virtual destruction of Greek Jewry, had been accompanied by internecine strife that was to culminate in outright civil war between 1946 and 1949. The war of independence in the 1820s and the National Schism of the period of the First World War had laid bare profound cleavages in society. But these earlier manifestations of a society divided against itself could not compare with the ferocity of the savagely fought civil war, which was to prolong the agonies of the occupation until the end of the decade. Moreover, the atrocities committed by both sides assumed an added dimension of horror in that they were inflicted by Greek upon Greek. The old quarrel had been between Venizelists and anti-Venizelists, broadly speaking between supporters of the republic and of the monarchy, but this schism had now been overlaid by an even more fundamental division, that between communists and anti-communists. During the second half of the decade the meagre resources of the enfeebled state were not devoted, as elsewhere in Europe, to repairing the ravages of war and occupation, but rather to the containment of ‘the enemy within’. By 1949 government military and security forces numbered approximately a quarter of a million. Much of the American aid that in western Europe was being devoted to economic development was channelled into military objectives. The bourgeois order, although at times gravely threatened, was to survive. But the government’s dependence for its political and military survival on external patronage effectively made Greece a client state of the United States. Few major military, economic or, indeed, political decisions could be taken without American approval, testimony to a degree of external penetration that had scarcely existed even when British hegemony was at its height.
{"title":"The legacy of the civil war 1950–74","authors":"R. Clogg","doi":"10.1017/CBO9781139507516.006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139507516.006","url":null,"abstract":"The decade of the 1940s was the darkest in Greece’s independent history. The glories of her stand at the time of the Italian and German invasions during the winter of 1940/1 and the heroism of the resistance, both collective and individual, to the barbaric German, Italian and Bulgarian occupation had brought in their wake privations on an unprecedented scale. Moreover, famine, reprisals and wanton material destruction, together with the virtual destruction of Greek Jewry, had been accompanied by internecine strife that was to culminate in outright civil war between 1946 and 1949. The war of independence in the 1820s and the National Schism of the period of the First World War had laid bare profound cleavages in society. But these earlier manifestations of a society divided against itself could not compare with the ferocity of the savagely fought civil war, which was to prolong the agonies of the occupation until the end of the decade. Moreover, the atrocities committed by both sides assumed an added dimension of horror in that they were inflicted by Greek upon Greek. The old quarrel had been between Venizelists and anti-Venizelists, broadly speaking between supporters of the republic and of the monarchy, but this schism had now been overlaid by an even more fundamental division, that between communists and anti-communists. During the second half of the decade the meagre resources of the enfeebled state were not devoted, as elsewhere in Europe, to repairing the ravages of war and occupation, but rather to the containment of ‘the enemy within’. By 1949 government military and security forces numbered approximately a quarter of a million. Much of the American aid that in western Europe was being devoted to economic development was channelled into military objectives. The bourgeois order, although at times gravely threatened, was to survive. But the government’s dependence for its political and military survival on external patronage effectively made Greece a client state of the United States. Few major military, economic or, indeed, political decisions could be taken without American approval, testimony to a degree of external penetration that had scarcely existed even when British hegemony was at its height.","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2013-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132311121","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.3138/9781487530754-010
Craig McCaw
Key Dates: 1984: The first cellular systems are built in Chicago and Washington, D.C. 1987: Craig McCaw sells his cable television assets to focus on wireless business. 1989: McCaw Cellular Communications acquires LIN Broadcasting. 1992: AT&T Corp. acquires 33 percent of McCaw Cellular Communications. 1994: AT&T Corp. and McCaw Cellular Communications merge. 1998: AT&T Wireless Group introduces Digital One Rate. 2001: AT&T Wireless Services, Inc. is spun off as a separate company.
{"title":"Key dates","authors":"Craig McCaw","doi":"10.3138/9781487530754-010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487530754-010","url":null,"abstract":"Key Dates: 1984: The first cellular systems are built in Chicago and Washington, D.C. 1987: Craig McCaw sells his cable television assets to focus on wireless business. 1989: McCaw Cellular Communications acquires LIN Broadcasting. 1992: AT&T Corp. acquires 33 percent of McCaw Cellular Communications. 1994: AT&T Corp. and McCaw Cellular Communications merge. 1998: AT&T Wireless Group introduces Digital One Rate. 2001: AT&T Wireless Services, Inc. is spun off as a separate company.","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"102 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124717731","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108953924.004
{"title":"Nation building, the ‘Great Idea’ and National Schism 1831–1922","authors":"","doi":"10.1017/9781108953924.004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108953924.004","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"509 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134201022","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108953924.017
{"title":"Index","authors":"","doi":"10.1017/9781108953924.017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108953924.017","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"77 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114642771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108953924.007
{"title":"The consolidation of democracy and the populist decade 1974–90","authors":"","doi":"10.1017/9781108953924.007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108953924.007","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"63 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130778970","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139507516.008
R. Clogg
{"title":"Balkan turmoil and political modernisation: Greece in the 1990s","authors":"R. Clogg","doi":"10.1017/CBO9781139507516.008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139507516.008","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127192672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.5040/9780755694549.0007
On Education, C. Adelman, Croom London, Inner London Education Authorit
{"title":"Guide to further reading","authors":"On Education, C. Adelman, Croom London, Inner London Education Authorit","doi":"10.5040/9780755694549.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755694549.0007","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132446526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/9781108953924.005
{"title":"Catastrophe and occupation and their consequences 1923–49","authors":"","doi":"10.1017/9781108953924.005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108953924.005","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"113 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123066509","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1900-01-01DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139507516.011
R. Clogg
{"title":"The royal houses of Greece","authors":"R. Clogg","doi":"10.1017/CBO9781139507516.011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139507516.011","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":178825,"journal":{"name":"A Concise History of Greece","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1900-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134121669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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