Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0014
Peter Townsend
For over a century, trace impurities have been involved in the chemical industry to accelerate chemical processes, or to enable those that will not function under normal conditions of temperature and pressure. Industrial examples started using impurities (here called catalysts) to speed up the production of margarine and development of chemical dyes. The concept is so effective that it is totally widespread and, of the thousands of examples one can cite, virtually every step in the chemistry of oil refineries, to catalytic convertors that clean car exhaust systems. Catalysts are also key to life and substances but, in biology, they are termed enzymes (without them life would not exist). Such powerful chemistry has diversified across many topic areas and cited examples range from forensics to cleaning and nuclear reactors.
{"title":"Chemistry and catalysis","authors":"Peter Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"For over a century, trace impurities have been involved in the chemical industry to accelerate chemical processes, or to enable those that will not function under normal conditions of temperature and pressure. Industrial examples started using impurities (here called catalysts) to speed up the production of margarine and development of chemical dyes. The concept is so effective that it is totally widespread and, of the thousands of examples one can cite, virtually every step in the chemistry of oil refineries, to catalytic convertors that clean car exhaust systems. Catalysts are also key to life and substances but, in biology, they are termed enzymes (without them life would not exist). Such powerful chemistry has diversified across many topic areas and cited examples range from forensics to cleaning and nuclear reactors.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129797946","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0016
P. Townsend
Without genetic imperfections there would be no evolution of any life form and all progeny would be identical to their ancestors. Stasis is not ideal as it would mean an inability to evolve and survive new diseases, changes in climatic conditions or food sources. Factors involved in genetic changes (nominally imperfections) that offer diversity and alternative chances of survival are discussed. Where humans have played with genetic control, as in breeding of farm and domestic animals, there has been very varied success and often benefits in one aspect have been offset by negative features elsewhere. Hence human interventions in this field may be well intentioned but results certainly are not guaranteed to be positive, and with a long lifespan it is neither simple to readily study changes, nor to reverse them.
{"title":"Evolution achieved through imperfections","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0016","url":null,"abstract":"Without genetic imperfections there would be no evolution of any life form and all progeny would be identical to their ancestors. Stasis is not ideal as it would mean an inability to evolve and survive new diseases, changes in climatic conditions or food sources. Factors involved in genetic changes (nominally imperfections) that offer diversity and alternative chances of survival are discussed. Where humans have played with genetic control, as in breeding of farm and domestic animals, there has been very varied success and often benefits in one aspect have been offset by negative features elsewhere. Hence human interventions in this field may be well intentioned but results certainly are not guaranteed to be positive, and with a long lifespan it is neither simple to readily study changes, nor to reverse them.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131956403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0005
Peter Townsend
Understanding information is complex as it depends on the source and reliability of the initial data and the way information is presented, as well as our own ability to make the correct interpretation. Each aspect of an information chain can lead to failure, including when the presenter does not correctly understand, or is deliberately trying to mislead, and from errors because the audience lacks the expertise of the source. Statistics and political examples of information errors are common, not least as many will have no ability or familiarity with graphical or mathematical steps involved in the process. Several types of presentation are included, where we are likely to draw totally opposite conclusions from the same information, or the aim was intentionally to mislead. The topic is relevant in daily life, from politics and health, as well as more complex issues such as wealth statistics, climate change or control of pandemics.
{"title":"Reader beware","authors":"Peter Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Understanding information is complex as it depends on the source and reliability of the initial data and the way information is presented, as well as our own ability to make the correct interpretation. Each aspect of an information chain can lead to failure, including when the presenter does not correctly understand, or is deliberately trying to mislead, and from errors because the audience lacks the expertise of the source. Statistics and political examples of information errors are common, not least as many will have no ability or familiarity with graphical or mathematical steps involved in the process. Several types of presentation are included, where we are likely to draw totally opposite conclusions from the same information, or the aim was intentionally to mislead. The topic is relevant in daily life, from politics and health, as well as more complex issues such as wealth statistics, climate change or control of pandemics.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125416123","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0010
P. Townsend
Crystal lattice structures are prone to error with both localized faults of impurities or misplaced atoms, and more major long-range flaws. The chapter discusses the many ways in which a lattice may be imperfect, both at the localized level of nearby neighbours, or with larger grains, boundaries and inclusions. All types exist and variously offer beneficial or negative features for various properties of the material options and how they influence the overall properties. Some very simple, well-characterized defect structures are discussed and from there one tries to extrapolate to more complex systems. Imperfections are variously valuable or destructive, and therefore understanding and control are critical. In reality this is challenging and so the examples used here are idealized but, because they are based on simple structures, they are readily understandable.
{"title":"Valuable imperfections in crystal lattices","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"Crystal lattice structures are prone to error with both localized faults of impurities or misplaced atoms, and more major long-range flaws. The chapter discusses the many ways in which a lattice may be imperfect, both at the localized level of nearby neighbours, or with larger grains, boundaries and inclusions. All types exist and variously offer beneficial or negative features for various properties of the material options and how they influence the overall properties. Some very simple, well-characterized defect structures are discussed and from there one tries to extrapolate to more complex systems. Imperfections are variously valuable or destructive, and therefore understanding and control are critical. In reality this is challenging and so the examples used here are idealized but, because they are based on simple structures, they are readily understandable.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123762276","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0003
P. Townsend
The aim here is to make the transition from cookery, where we are familiar with the need for trace additions of salt, herbs and spices (i.e. imperfections), to all other types of manufactured goods. Mentally, we rarely consider the presence of impurities and, even in cookery, ignore that our food sources always include measurable quantities of many impurities, even rat hairs from grain silos etc. This deliberate rejection of the thought of such impurities always conditions our thinking and inhibits our attitudes and understanding of all modern technological materials. Impurities at parts per million can have enormous effects but we struggle to deal with very large numbers, even when faced with biological changes caused by cells and viruses that may be just a billionth of our weight, but define all our biology and health.
{"title":"Cookery and technological spices","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"The aim here is to make the transition from cookery, where we are familiar with the need for trace additions of salt, herbs and spices (i.e. imperfections), to all other types of manufactured goods. Mentally, we rarely consider the presence of impurities and, even in cookery, ignore that our food sources always include measurable quantities of many impurities, even rat hairs from grain silos etc. This deliberate rejection of the thought of such impurities always conditions our thinking and inhibits our attitudes and understanding of all modern technological materials. Impurities at parts per million can have enormous effects but we struggle to deal with very large numbers, even when faced with biological changes caused by cells and viruses that may be just a billionth of our weight, but define all our biology and health.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131134589","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0007
Peter Townsend
Whilst glass bottles and products have existed for millennia, the current understanding of glass production has advanced rapidly in the last century. Instead of small window panes, modern high quality architectural glass can coat entire buildings in large sheets of material with properties that define, and control, both heat transport to offer temperature stability for buildings and vehicles, as well as colour for decorative usage. Additionally, the glass may be photochromic in windows or sunglass usage. More exotic types include impact and bullet-proof resistance, as described by numerous routes to toughen and modify glass surfaces. In each of the industrial scale examples, as well as more demanding situations such as glass lasers, the key factor is a stringent usage of dopants and impurities (i.e. perfect examples of control by imperfections).
{"title":"Examples of new glass technologies","authors":"Peter Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Whilst glass bottles and products have existed for millennia, the current understanding of glass production has advanced rapidly in the last century. Instead of small window panes, modern high quality architectural glass can coat entire buildings in large sheets of material with properties that define, and control, both heat transport to offer temperature stability for buildings and vehicles, as well as colour for decorative usage. Additionally, the glass may be photochromic in windows or sunglass usage. More exotic types include impact and bullet-proof resistance, as described by numerous routes to toughen and modify glass surfaces. In each of the industrial scale examples, as well as more demanding situations such as glass lasers, the key factor is a stringent usage of dopants and impurities (i.e. perfect examples of control by imperfections).","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130050115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0009
Peter Townsend
Gemstones and minerals are attractive and coloured because they include impurities. The chapter discusses how such impurities are located in the crystal lattice structures, and the differences that ensue between natural and synthetic crystal growth. Whilst the latter may be controllable (e.g. for 30 cm long rubies) they are small compared with some natural mineral examples. Examples cited range from gemstones to lasers, but progress is only made once there is knowledge of the lattice locations of impurities in the host structure. This is often apparent from the crystallography and shape of natural minerals. Perfection (i.e. accurate and uniform placement of the impurities) is essential for laser crystals, whereas high value natural gemstones invariably show visible flaws. Understanding involves the role of chemistry, ionic sizes and thermal processing, in addition to the dopants.
{"title":"Beauty from imperfections","authors":"Peter Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0009","url":null,"abstract":"Gemstones and minerals are attractive and coloured because they include impurities. The chapter discusses how such impurities are located in the crystal lattice structures, and the differences that ensue between natural and synthetic crystal growth. Whilst the latter may be controllable (e.g. for 30 cm long rubies) they are small compared with some natural mineral examples. Examples cited range from gemstones to lasers, but progress is only made once there is knowledge of the lattice locations of impurities in the host structure. This is often apparent from the crystallography and shape of natural minerals. Perfection (i.e. accurate and uniform placement of the impurities) is essential for laser crystals, whereas high value natural gemstones invariably show visible flaws. Understanding involves the role of chemistry, ionic sizes and thermal processing, in addition to the dopants.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"113970689","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0011
P. Townsend
All modern electronics and computers are based on semiconductor devices and they function because we have invested immense quantities of time, money and people trying to understand how a few parts per million of the atoms in a solid can totally change and control the electrical properties. The production challenges need immense precision, not only with the number of dopant impurities, but also in the way they are distributed and patterned into the semiconductor host. The basic concepts are simple, whereas the manufacturing is highly complex. The chapter offers simplistic views of how electrical properties are altered, and why it is essential to control the location of electrically active impurities. It is clear that there are many features which influence semiconductor performance but, conceptually, the underlying science is vastly simpler than the fabrication.
{"title":"Impurities and the growth of semiconductors","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0011","url":null,"abstract":"All modern electronics and computers are based on semiconductor devices and they function because we have invested immense quantities of time, money and people trying to understand how a few parts per million of the atoms in a solid can totally change and control the electrical properties. The production challenges need immense precision, not only with the number of dopant impurities, but also in the way they are distributed and patterned into the semiconductor host. The basic concepts are simple, whereas the manufacturing is highly complex. The chapter offers simplistic views of how electrical properties are altered, and why it is essential to control the location of electrically active impurities. It is clear that there are many features which influence semiconductor performance but, conceptually, the underlying science is vastly simpler than the fabrication.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123995704","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0020
P. Townsend
We tend to live in the present, both personally and politically, and this inhibits serious actions that involve the long-term future, unless one can see political or commercial advantage. Whilst there are claims that we are destroying the planet and its resources (a truly significant imperfection), the reality is that there is inadequate action to seriously address these issues. Not least is that over the last century population has increased eightfold by adding around a billion people every decade. This is unsustainable, and it should be an absolute key concern of all of us. The fact that it opens commercial markets, and profits, means we ignore the increase, although over two more generations we will have passed the window of opportunity to salvage humanity. This is an imperfection on the ultimate scale.
{"title":"The greatest challenges that we face","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0020","url":null,"abstract":"We tend to live in the present, both personally and politically, and this inhibits serious actions that involve the long-term future, unless one can see political or commercial advantage. Whilst there are claims that we are destroying the planet and its resources (a truly significant imperfection), the reality is that there is inadequate action to seriously address these issues. Not least is that over the last century population has increased eightfold by adding around a billion people every decade. This is unsustainable, and it should be an absolute key concern of all of us. The fact that it opens commercial markets, and profits, means we ignore the increase, although over two more generations we will have passed the window of opportunity to salvage humanity. This is an imperfection on the ultimate scale.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134495394","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-06DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0018
P. Townsend
The chapter considers highly emotive topics where the science, or ideas are contentious, and frequently it is difficult to separate facts from opinion, bias, deliberate mis-information or political and nationalistic ideas. We are humans so this is inevitable, and currently there are many subjects with a wealth of partial information, strong emotive opinion, models and computer simulations, or entrenched political and economic factors. In many cases there can be deliberate mis-information in circulation. With such minefields one must tread carefully. Currently this includes many topics in medical areas, models of astronomy, evolution, viruses and pandemics, and items linked to religion or nationalism. The only consolation is that science has a degree of pragmatism and erroneous concepts are invariably eventually displaced and replaced by better models.
{"title":"Science in the realm of opinion","authors":"P. Townsend","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192857477.003.0018","url":null,"abstract":"The chapter considers highly emotive topics where the science, or ideas are contentious, and frequently it is difficult to separate facts from opinion, bias, deliberate mis-information or political and nationalistic ideas. We are humans so this is inevitable, and currently there are many subjects with a wealth of partial information, strong emotive opinion, models and computer simulations, or entrenched political and economic factors. In many cases there can be deliberate mis-information in circulation. With such minefields one must tread carefully. Currently this includes many topics in medical areas, models of astronomy, evolution, viruses and pandemics, and items linked to religion or nationalism. The only consolation is that science has a degree of pragmatism and erroneous concepts are invariably eventually displaced and replaced by better models.","PeriodicalId":180044,"journal":{"name":"The Power of Imperfections","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133904308","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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