Abstract. As the largest terrestrial carbon pool, soil organic carbon (SOC) has the potential to influence and mitigate climate change; thus, SOC monitoring is of high importance in the frameworks of various international treaties. Therefore, high-resolution SOC maps are required. Machine learning (ML) offers new opportunities to develop these maps due to its ability to data mine large datasets. The aim of this study was to apply three algorithms commonly used in digital soil mapping – random forest (RF), boosted regression trees (BRT), and support vector machine for regression (SVR) – on the first German agricultural soil inventory to model the agricultural topsoil (0–30 cm) SOC content and develop a two-model approach to address the high variability in SOC in German agricultural soils. Model performance is often limited by the size and quality of the soil dataset available for calibration and validation. Therefore, the impact of enlarging the training dataset was tested by including data from the European Land Use/Cover Area frame Survey for agricultural sites in Germany. Nested cross-validation was implemented for model evaluation and parameter tuning. Grid search and the differential evolution algorithm were also applied to ensure that each algorithm was appropriately tuned . The SOC content of the German agricultural soil inventory was highly variable, ranging from 4 to 480 g kg−1. However, only 4 % of all soils contained more than 87 g kg−1 SOC and were considered organic or degraded organic soils. The results showed that SVR produced the best performance, with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 32 g kg−1 when the algorithms were trained on the full dataset. However, the average RMSE of all algorithms decreased by 34 % when mineral and organic soils were modelled separately, with the best result from SVR presenting an RMSE of 21 g kg−1. The model performance was enhanced by up to 1 % for mineral soils and by up to 2 % for organic soils. Despite the ability of machine learning algorithms, in general, and SVR, in particular, to model SOC on a national scale, the study showed that the most important aspect for improving the model performance was to separate the modelling of mineral and organic soils.
摘要土壤有机碳(SOC)作为最大的陆地碳库，具有影响和减缓气候变化的潜力;因此，SOC监测在各种国际条约框架中具有重要意义。因此，需要高分辨率的SOC图。机器学习(ML)为开发这些地图提供了新的机会，因为它能够对大型数据集进行数据挖掘。本研究的目的是将数字土壤测绘中常用的三种算法——随机森林(RF)、增强回归树(BRT)和回归支持向量机(SVR)——应用于第一次德国农业土壤调查，以模拟农业表土(0-30 cm)的soc含量，并开发一种双模型方法来解决德国农业土壤中soc的高变异性。模型性能通常受到可用于校准和验证的土壤数据集的大小和质量的限制。因此，对扩大训练数据集的影响进行了测试，包括来自德国农业用地的欧洲土地利用/覆盖面积框架调查的数据。嵌套交叉验证用于模型评估和参数调整。网格搜索和差分进化算法也被应用，以确保每个算法都是适当的调整。德国农业土壤的有机碳含量变化很大，在4 ~ 480 g kg−1之间。然而，所有土壤中只有4%的土壤有机碳含量超过87 g kg - 1，被认为是有机或退化有机土壤。结果表明，当算法在完整数据集上训练时，SVR产生了最好的性能，均方根误差(RMSE)为32 g kg−1。然而，当矿物和有机土壤分别建模时，所有算法的平均RMSE降低了34%，SVR的最佳结果显示RMSE为21 g kg - 1。模型性能在矿质土壤中提高了1%，在有机土壤中提高了2%。尽管机器学习算法(尤其是SVR)能够在全国范围内模拟土壤有机碳，但研究表明，提高模型性能的最重要方面是将矿物土壤和有机土壤的建模分离开来。
{"title":"Spatial prediction of organic carbon in German agricultural topsoil using machine learning algorithms","authors":"Ali Sakhaee, Anika Gebauer, Mareike Ließ, A. Don","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-587-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-587-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. As the largest terrestrial carbon pool, soil organic carbon (SOC) has the\u0000potential to influence and mitigate climate change; thus, SOC monitoring is of high importance\u0000in the frameworks of various international treaties. Therefore, high-resolution SOC maps are required. Machine learning (ML) offers new\u0000opportunities to develop these maps due to its ability to data mine large\u0000datasets. The aim of this study was to apply three algorithms commonly used\u0000in digital soil mapping – random forest (RF), boosted regression trees\u0000(BRT), and support vector machine for regression (SVR) – on the first German\u0000agricultural soil inventory to model the agricultural topsoil (0–30 cm) SOC\u0000content and develop a two-model approach to address the high variability in\u0000SOC in German agricultural soils. Model performance is often limited by the\u0000size and quality of the soil dataset available for calibration and\u0000validation. Therefore, the impact of enlarging the training dataset was tested\u0000by including data from the European Land Use/Cover Area frame Survey\u0000for agricultural sites in Germany. Nested cross-validation was implemented\u0000for model evaluation and parameter tuning. Grid search and the differential\u0000evolution algorithm were also applied to ensure that each algorithm was\u0000appropriately tuned . The SOC content of the German agricultural soil\u0000inventory was highly variable, ranging from 4 to 480 g kg−1. However, only 4 % of all soils contained more than 87 g kg−1 SOC and were considered organic or degraded organic soils. The\u0000results showed that SVR produced the best performance, with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 32 g kg−1 when the algorithms were trained on the full dataset. However, the\u0000average RMSE of all algorithms decreased by 34 % when mineral and organic\u0000soils were modelled separately, with the best result from SVR presenting an RMSE of\u000021 g kg−1. The model performance was enhanced by up to 1 % for\u0000mineral soils and by up to 2 % for organic soils. Despite the ability of machine\u0000learning algorithms, in general, and SVR, in particular, to model SOC on a\u0000national scale, the study showed that the most important aspect for\u0000improving the model performance was to separate the modelling of mineral and\u0000organic soils.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"40 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-09-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83395252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. We present methods to evaluate the spatial patterns of the geographic distribution of soil properties in the USA, as shown in gridded maps produced by digital soil mapping (DSM) at global (SoilGrids v2), national (Soil Properties and Class 100 m Grids of the USA), and regional (POLARIS soil properties) scales and compare them to spatial patterns known from detailed field surveys (gNATSGO and gSSURGO). The methods are illustrated with an example, i.e. topsoil pH for an area in central New York state. A companion report examines other areas, soil properties, and depth intervals. A set of R Markdown scripts is referenced so that readers can apply the analysis for areas of their interest. For the test case, we discover and discuss substantial discrepancies between DSM products and large differences between the DSM products and legacy field surveys. These differences are in whole-map statistics, visually identifiable landscape features, level of detail, range and strength of spatial autocorrelation, landscape metrics (Shannon diversity and evenness, shape, aggregation, mean fractal dimension, and co-occurrence vectors), and spatial patterns of property maps classified by histogram equalization. Histograms and variogram analysis revealed the smoothing effect of machine learning models. Property class maps made by histogram equalization were substantially different, but there was no consistent trend in their landscape metrics. The model using only national points and covariates was not substantially different from the global model and, in some cases, introduced artefacts from a lithology covariate. Uncertainty (5 %–95 % confidence intervals) provided by SoilGrids and POLARIS were unrealistically wide compared to gNATSGO/gSSURGO low and high estimated values and show substantially different spatial patterns. We discuss the potential use of the DSM products as a (partial) replacement for field-based soil surveys. There is no substitute for actually examining and interpreting the soil–landscape relation, but despite the issues revealed in this study, DSM can be an important aid to the soil surveyor.
摘要我们提出了评估美国土壤性质地理分布的空间格局的方法，如数字土壤制图(DSM)在全球(SoilGrids v2)、国家(soil properties and Class 100 m Grids of USA)和区域(POLARIS soil properties)尺度上生成的网格图所示，并将其与详细的实地调查(gNATSGO和gSSURGO)所知的空间格局进行比较。以纽约州中部某地区的表层土壤pH值为例说明了该方法。一份配套报告考察了其他地区、土壤性质和深度间隔。本文引用了一组R Markdown脚本，以便读者可以将分析应用于他们感兴趣的领域。对于测试用例，我们发现并讨论了DSM产品之间的实质性差异，以及DSM产品与遗留现场调查之间的巨大差异。这些差异体现在全图统计、视觉可识别的景观特征、细节水平、空间自相关的范围和强度、景观指标(香农多样性和均匀度、形状、聚集、平均分形维数和共现向量)以及直方图均衡化分类的属性图的空间格局。直方图和方差分析揭示了机器学习模型的平滑效果。直方图均衡化方法绘制的地物分类图差异较大，但景观指标变化趋势不一致。仅使用国家点和协变量的模型与全球模型没有本质上的不同，并且在某些情况下，引入了来自岩性协变量的伪象。与gNATSGO/gSSURGO的低值和高低值相比，SoilGrids和POLARIS提供的不确定性(5% - 95%置信区间)大得不切实际，呈现出明显不同的空间格局。我们讨论了DSM产品作为(部分)替代现场土壤调查的潜在用途。没有什么可以替代实际检查和解释土壤-景观关系，但是尽管本研究中揭示了一些问题，DSM可以成为土壤测量员的重要辅助。
{"title":"How well does digital soil mapping represent soil geography? An investigation from the USA","authors":"D. Rossiter, L. Poggio, D. Beaudette, Z. Libohova","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-559-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-559-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. We present methods to evaluate the spatial patterns of the geographic distribution of soil properties in the USA, as shown in gridded maps produced by digital soil mapping (DSM) at global (SoilGrids v2), national (Soil Properties and Class 100 m Grids of the USA), and regional (POLARIS soil properties) scales and compare them to spatial patterns known from detailed field surveys (gNATSGO and gSSURGO). The methods are illustrated with an example, i.e. topsoil pH for an area in central New York state. A companion report examines other areas, soil properties, and depth intervals. A set of R Markdown scripts is referenced so that readers can apply the analysis for areas of their interest. For the test case, we discover and discuss substantial discrepancies between DSM products and large differences between the DSM products and legacy field surveys. These differences are in whole-map statistics, visually identifiable landscape features, level of detail, range and strength of spatial autocorrelation, landscape metrics (Shannon diversity and evenness, shape, aggregation, mean fractal dimension, and co-occurrence vectors), and spatial patterns of property maps classified by histogram equalization. Histograms and variogram analysis revealed the smoothing effect of machine learning models. Property class maps made by histogram equalization were substantially different, but there was no consistent trend in their landscape metrics. The model using only national points and covariates was not substantially different from the global model and, in some cases, introduced artefacts from a lithology covariate. Uncertainty (5 %–95 % confidence intervals) provided by SoilGrids and POLARIS were unrealistically wide compared to gNATSGO/gSSURGO low and high estimated values and show substantially different spatial patterns. We discuss the potential use of the DSM products as a (partial) replacement for field-based soil surveys. There is no substitute for actually examining and interpreting the soil–landscape relation, but despite the issues revealed in this study, DSM can be an important aid to the soil surveyor.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-09-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82924962","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. Soil ecological stoichiometry offers a tool to explore the distribution, cycling, limitation, and balance of chemical elements in tea plantation ecosystems. This study aimed to explore how soil organic C (OC) and nutrient contents (total N (TN), total P (TP), Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, and Mn2+) as well as their stoichiometric ratios (C/N, C/P, N/P, Ca/Mg, and Fe/Mn) varied with tea plantation age (8, 17, 25, and 43 years) and soil depth (0–10, 10–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm) within aggregates in southern Guangxi in China. Our results showed that tea plantation age and soil depth significantly affected soil nutrient stoichiometry in different sizes of aggregates. Among different ages of tea plantations, soil OC, TN, and TP contents as well as C/N, C/P, and N/P ratios significantly decreased as the soil depth increased. In addition, soil Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents were significantly lower in the surface soil layer than the deeper soil layer, whereas soil Fe2+ and Mn2+ contents showed opposite trends, and no significant differences were detected in Ca/Mg and Fe/Mn ratios among different soil depths. At the 0–40 cm soil depth, continuous planting of tea corresponded to increases in soil OC, TN, Fe2+, and Mn2+ contents, whereas soil Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents significantly decreased over time. During the process of tea growth, the losses of soil Ca2+ and Mg2+, especially Ca2+ (as indicated by the decrease in the soil Ca/Mg ratio), led to soil acidification, which reduced Fe2+ absorption and enhanced Mn2+ uptake by tea plants (as indicated by the increase in the soil Fe/Mn ratio). In general, tea plantation age affected the variations of soil nutrient contents and stoichiometry, and such effects were more obvious at the 0–40 cm soil depth, in contrast to the 40–60 cm soil depth.
{"title":"Soil nutrient contents and stoichiometry within aggregate size classes varied with tea plantation age and soil depth in southern Guangxi in China","authors":"Ling Mao, S. Ye, Sheng-qiang Wang","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-487-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-487-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Soil ecological stoichiometry offers a tool to explore the distribution,\u0000cycling, limitation, and balance of chemical elements in tea plantation\u0000ecosystems. This study aimed to explore how soil organic C (OC) and nutrient\u0000contents (total N (TN), total P (TP), Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, and\u0000Mn2+) as well as their stoichiometric ratios (C/N, C/P, N/P, Ca/Mg, and\u0000Fe/Mn) varied with tea plantation age (8, 17, 25, and 43 years) and soil\u0000depth (0–10, 10–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm) within aggregates in southern Guangxi in China. Our results showed that tea plantation age and soil depth\u0000significantly affected soil nutrient stoichiometry in different sizes of\u0000aggregates. Among different ages of tea plantations, soil OC, TN, and TP\u0000contents as well as C/N, C/P, and N/P ratios significantly decreased as the\u0000soil depth increased. In addition, soil Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents\u0000were significantly lower in the surface soil layer than the deeper soil\u0000layer, whereas soil Fe2+ and Mn2+ contents showed opposite trends,\u0000and no significant differences were detected in Ca/Mg and Fe/Mn ratios among\u0000different soil depths. At the 0–40 cm soil depth, continuous planting of tea\u0000corresponded to increases in soil OC, TN, Fe2+, and Mn2+ contents, whereas soil Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents significantly\u0000decreased over time. During the process of tea growth, the losses of soil\u0000Ca2+ and Mg2+, especially Ca2+ (as indicated by the decrease\u0000in the soil Ca/Mg ratio), led to soil acidification, which reduced Fe2+ absorption and enhanced Mn2+ uptake by tea plants (as indicated by the\u0000increase in the soil Fe/Mn ratio). In general, tea plantation age affected the variations of soil nutrient contents and stoichiometry, and such effects\u0000were more obvious at the 0–40 cm soil depth, in contrast to the 40–60 cm soil depth.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81442806","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Zefang Shen, Haylee M. D’Agui, L. Walden, Mingxi Zhang, Tsoek Man Yiu, K. Dixon, P. Nevill, A. Cross, Mohana Matangulu, Yangfang Hu, R. V. Viscarra Rossel
Abstract. Mining can cause severe disturbances to the soil, which underpins the viability of terrestrial ecosystems. Post-mining rehabilitation relies on measuring soil properties that are critical indicators of soil health. Soil visible–near-infrared (vis–NIR) spectroscopy is rapid, accurate, and cost-effective for estimating a range of soil properties. Recent advances in infrared detectors and microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs) have produced miniaturised, relatively inexpensive spectrometers. Here, we evaluate the spectra from four miniaturised visible and NIR spectrometers, some combinations, and a full-range vis–NIR spectrometer for modelling 29 soil physical, chemical, and biological properties used to assess soil health at mine sites. We collected topsoil samples from reference, undisturbed native vegetation, and stockpiles from seven mines in Western Australia. We evaluated the spectrometers' repeatability and the accuracy of spectroscopic models built with seven statistical and machine learning algorithms. The spectra from the visible spectrometer could estimate sand, silt, and clay with similar or better accuracy than the NIR spectrometers. However, the spectra from the NIR spectrometers produced better estimates of soil chemical and biological properties. By combining the miniaturised visible and NIR spectrometers, we improved the accuracy of their soil property estimates, which were similar to those from the full-range spectrometer. The miniaturised spectrometers and combinations predicted 24 of the 29 soil properties with moderate or greater accuracy (Lin's concordance correlation, ρc≥0.65). The repeatability of the NIR spectrometers was similar to that of the full-range, portable spectrometer. The miniaturised NIR spectrometers produced comparably accurate soil property estimates to the full-range portable system which is an order of magnitude more expensive, particularly when combined with the visible range sensor. Thus, the miniaturised spectrometers could form the basis for a rapid, cost-effective soil diagnostic capacity to support mine site rehabilitation and deliver significant positive economic and environmental outcomes.
{"title":"Miniaturised visible and near-infrared spectrometers for assessing soil health indicators in mine site rehabilitation","authors":"Zefang Shen, Haylee M. D’Agui, L. Walden, Mingxi Zhang, Tsoek Man Yiu, K. Dixon, P. Nevill, A. Cross, Mohana Matangulu, Yangfang Hu, R. V. Viscarra Rossel","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-467-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-467-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Mining can cause severe disturbances to the soil, which underpins the viability of terrestrial ecosystems. Post-mining rehabilitation relies on measuring soil properties that are critical indicators of soil health. Soil visible–near-infrared (vis–NIR) spectroscopy is rapid, accurate, and cost-effective for estimating a range of soil properties. Recent advances in infrared detectors and microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs) have produced miniaturised, relatively inexpensive spectrometers. Here, we evaluate the spectra from four miniaturised visible and NIR spectrometers, some combinations, and a full-range vis–NIR spectrometer for modelling 29 soil physical, chemical, and biological properties used to assess soil health at mine sites. We collected topsoil samples from reference, undisturbed native vegetation, and stockpiles from seven mines in Western Australia. We evaluated the spectrometers' repeatability and the accuracy of spectroscopic models built with seven statistical and machine learning algorithms. The spectra from the visible spectrometer could estimate sand, silt, and clay with similar or better accuracy than the NIR spectrometers. However, the spectra from the NIR spectrometers produced better estimates of soil chemical and biological properties. By combining the miniaturised visible and NIR spectrometers, we improved the accuracy of their soil property estimates, which were similar to those from the full-range spectrometer. The miniaturised spectrometers and combinations predicted 24 of the 29 soil properties with moderate or greater accuracy (Lin's concordance correlation, ρc≥0.65). The repeatability of the NIR spectrometers was similar to that of the full-range, portable spectrometer. The miniaturised NIR spectrometers produced comparably accurate soil property estimates to the full-range portable system which is an order of magnitude more expensive, particularly when combined with the visible range sensor. Thus, the miniaturised spectrometers could form the basis for a rapid, cost-effective soil diagnostic capacity to support mine site rehabilitation and deliver significant positive economic and environmental outcomes.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"19 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88733631","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. Black carbon (BC) plays an important role in terrestrial carbon storage and can sustainably improve soil fertility. However, the accurate quantification of BC remains critical to fully unravelling the functions and dynamics of BC in soil. In this study, we explored the potential of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to identify, characterize and quantify charcoal in the soil of pre-industrial charcoal kiln sites from various forest and cropland areas in Belgium and Germany. Pre-industrial charcoals and uncharred soil organic matter (SOM) demonstrated a distinct thermal signature that could be used to distinguish between them, with charcoal being more thermally stable than SOM. The DSC pattern of charcoals was characterized by one to three specific exothermic peaks, varying in size and position depending on soil conditions. Our data suggest that the thermal moieties within charcoal depend on the strength of chemical bonds of C atoms (increasing with the degree of aromatic condensation and decreasing with weathering) and on the activation energy required to initiate combustion. Despite the specific thermal features of charcoal, its decomposition spans a wide range of temperatures that overlaps with the thermal signature of uncharred SOM. This stresses the challenge of BC quantification in soil and hinders the use of cut-off temperatures to accurately quantify charcoal in soil. Therefore, charcoal-C content was estimated from the relative height of exothermic peaks, attributed either to the combustion of charcoal or SOM. For a selection of 45 soil samples, charcoal-C content estimated by DSC was compared to benzene polycarboxylic acid (BPCA) abundance, a widely used method to quantify BC in soil. The two methods correlated strongly (R2=0.97), with BPCA C representing about one-fifth of DSC-derived charcoal C. This reinforces the view that operationally defined BC content has an absolute quantitative value only if the recovery rate is controlled, which is very complicated for many case studies. Overall, our results demonstrate that dynamic thermal analysis is largely under-exploited despite providing quantitatively interpretable information across the continuum of SOM.
{"title":"Identification of thermal signature and quantification of charcoal in soil using differential scanning calorimetry and benzene polycarboxylic acid (BPCA) markers","authors":"B. Hardy, N. Borchard, J. Leifeld","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-451-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-451-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Black carbon (BC) plays an important role in terrestrial\u0000carbon storage and can sustainably improve soil fertility. However, the\u0000accurate quantification of BC remains critical to fully unravelling the\u0000functions and dynamics of BC in soil. In this study, we explored the\u0000potential of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to identify,\u0000characterize and quantify charcoal in the soil of pre-industrial charcoal\u0000kiln sites from various forest and cropland areas in Belgium and Germany.\u0000Pre-industrial charcoals and uncharred soil organic matter (SOM)\u0000demonstrated a distinct thermal signature that could be used to distinguish\u0000between them, with charcoal being more thermally stable than SOM. The DSC\u0000pattern of charcoals was characterized by one to three specific exothermic peaks,\u0000varying in size and position depending on soil conditions. Our data suggest\u0000that the thermal moieties within charcoal depend on the strength of chemical\u0000bonds of C atoms (increasing with the degree of aromatic condensation and\u0000decreasing with weathering) and on the activation energy required to\u0000initiate combustion. Despite the specific thermal features of charcoal, its\u0000decomposition spans a wide range of temperatures that overlaps with the\u0000thermal signature of uncharred SOM. This stresses the challenge of BC\u0000quantification in soil and hinders the use of cut-off temperatures to\u0000accurately quantify charcoal in soil. Therefore, charcoal-C content was\u0000estimated from the relative height of exothermic peaks, attributed either to the\u0000combustion of charcoal or SOM. For a selection of 45 soil samples,\u0000charcoal-C content estimated by DSC was compared to benzene polycarboxylic\u0000acid (BPCA) abundance, a widely used method to quantify BC in soil. The two\u0000methods correlated strongly (R2=0.97), with BPCA C\u0000representing about one-fifth of DSC-derived charcoal C. This reinforces the\u0000view that operationally defined BC content has an absolute quantitative\u0000value only if the recovery rate is controlled, which is very complicated for\u0000many case studies. Overall, our results demonstrate that dynamic thermal\u0000analysis is largely under-exploited despite providing quantitatively\u0000interpretable information across the continuum of SOM.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86516512","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
D. Hobson, M. Harty, Saoirse R. Tracy, K. Mcdonnell
Abstract. The management of agricultural soils during crop establishment can affect root development due to changes in the soil structure. This paper assesses the influence of tillage depth (250 mm, 100 mm, and zero tillage) and traffic management (conventional tyre pressure, low tyre pressure, and no traffic) on wheat root system architecture during winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) tillering and flowering growth stages (GS) at a long-term tillage trial site. The study revealed that zero-tillage systems increased crop yield through significantly greater root biomass (P<0.001), root length density, and deeper seminal rooting analysed using X-ray computed tomography (CT) (P<0.001) compared with trafficked treatments. In general, conventional-pressure traffic had a significant negative influence on the crop yield (P<0.01), root development (0.001), bulk density (P<0.05), and total soil porosity (P<0.05) of deep- and shallow-tillage conventional-pressure systems compared with no-traffic zero- and deep-tillage systems. Visual improvements in soil structure under zero-tillage conditions may have improved crop rooting in zero-tillage treatments through vertical pore fissures (biopores), enhancing water uptake during the crop flowering period. This study highlights the increasing implications of soil structural damage on root system architecture created by machinery traffic in crop production. Although the tillage method was less important, the constricted root systems were more pronounced in conventional-pressure shallow-tillage and deep-tillage systems, emphasizing the importance of using controlled-traffic farming methods to improve soil management and reduce the trafficked areas of agricultural fields.
{"title":"The effect of tillage depth and traffic management on soil properties and root development during two growth stages of winter wheat (<i>Triticum aestivum</i> L.)","authors":"D. Hobson, M. Harty, Saoirse R. Tracy, K. Mcdonnell","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-391-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-391-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The management of agricultural soils during crop establishment can affect\u0000root development due to changes in the soil structure. This paper assesses the\u0000influence of tillage depth (250 mm, 100 mm, and zero tillage) and traffic management\u0000(conventional tyre pressure, low tyre pressure, and no traffic) on wheat\u0000root system architecture during winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) tillering and flowering\u0000growth stages (GS) at a long-term tillage trial site. The study revealed\u0000that zero-tillage systems increased crop yield through significantly greater\u0000root biomass (P<0.001), root length density, and deeper seminal\u0000rooting analysed using X-ray computed tomography (CT) (P<0.001)\u0000compared with trafficked treatments. In general, conventional-pressure\u0000traffic had a significant negative influence on the crop yield (P<0.01), root development (0.001), bulk density (P<0.05), and total\u0000soil porosity (P<0.05) of deep- and shallow-tillage conventional-pressure systems compared with no-traffic zero- and deep-tillage systems. Visual\u0000improvements in soil structure under zero-tillage conditions may have improved crop\u0000rooting in zero-tillage treatments through vertical pore fissures\u0000(biopores), enhancing water uptake during the crop flowering period. This\u0000study highlights the increasing implications of soil structural damage on\u0000root system architecture created by machinery traffic in crop\u0000production. Although the tillage method was less important, the constricted root\u0000systems were more pronounced in conventional-pressure shallow-tillage and\u0000deep-tillage systems, emphasizing the importance of using controlled-traffic\u0000farming methods to improve soil management and reduce the trafficked areas\u0000of agricultural fields.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86965383","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Bin Wu, Jia Li, Mingping Sheng, He Peng, Dinghua Peng, Heng Xu
Abstract. Soil pollution with cadmium (Cd) has been threatening the human health. In this study, we investigated the possibility of applying biochar and oyster shell to reduce Cd uptake by crops and modify soil quality. A field study based on the rice–oilseed rape rotation was done, and the treatments were comprised without amendments (PA0) and with 15 000 kg ha−1 biochar (PA1), 15 000 kg ha−1 oyster shell (PA2), and 7500 kg ha−1 biochar and 7500 kg ha−1 oyster shell (PA3). Results revealed that both oyster shell and biochar reduced the HOAc-extractable Cd in soil. Compared to PA0, the HOAc-extractable Cd in the PA1, PA2, and PA3 treatments was reduced by 4.76 %–20.79 %, 17.86 %–38.61 %, and 5.95 %–10.89 %, respectively. The cooperative application of biochar and oyster shell reduced the Cd accumulation in brown rice and oilseed by 29.67 % and 19.74 %, respectively, compared to control and thus decreased the hazard quotient (HQ) from the consumption of brown rice and oilseed. The addition of biochar slightly increased soil organic matter. In addition, the available P in the PA2 and PA3 treatments was significantly (p<0.05) increased by 200.96 %–295.92 % and 187.46 %–280.04 % compared to the control. Moreover, the cooperative application of biochar and oyster shell enhanced the activities of urease, catalase, and β-galactosidase by 139.44 %–147.56 %, 10.71 %–34.31 %, and 82.08 %–244.38 %, respectively. These results demonstrated that the utilization of biochar and oyster shell might be an effective pathway to reducing Cd uptake by crops and improving soil fertility and enzyme activities.
摘要土壤镉污染已严重威胁着人类的健康。在本研究中，我们探讨了施用生物炭和牡蛎壳降低作物对Cd的吸收和改善土壤质量的可能性。在水稻-油菜轮作的基础上进行了田间试验，处理包括不加改性剂(PA0)、15 000 kg ha - 1生物炭(PA1)、15 000 kg ha - 1牡蛎壳(PA2)、7500 kg ha - 1生物炭和7500 kg ha - 1牡蛎壳(PA3)。结果表明，牡蛎壳和生物炭均能降低土壤中hoac可提取Cd的含量。与PA0处理相比，PA1、PA2和PA3处理的hoac可萃取Cd分别降低4.76% ~ 20.79%、17.86% ~ 38.61%和5.95% ~ 10.89%。与对照相比，生物炭与牡蛎壳配合施用使糙米和油籽Cd累积量分别降低了29.67%和19.74%，从而降低了糙米和油籽消耗的危害系数(HQ)。生物炭的添加使土壤有机质略有增加。此外，PA2和PA3处理的有效磷含量较对照显著(P <0.05)提高了200.96% ~ 295.92%和187.46% ~ 280.04%。此外，生物炭与牡蛎壳配合施用，脲酶、过氧化氢酶和β-半乳糖苷酶的活性分别提高了139.44% ~ 147.56%、10.71% ~ 34.31%和82.08% ~ 244.38%。这些结果表明，生物炭和牡蛎壳的利用可能是减少作物对Cd的吸收，提高土壤肥力和酶活性的有效途径。
{"title":"The application of biochar and oyster shell reduced cadmium uptake by crops and modified soil fertility and enzyme activities in contaminated soil","authors":"Bin Wu, Jia Li, Mingping Sheng, He Peng, Dinghua Peng, Heng Xu","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-409-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-409-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Soil pollution with cadmium (Cd) has been threatening the human health. In this study, we investigated the possibility of applying biochar and oyster shell to reduce Cd uptake by crops and modify soil quality. A field study based on the rice–oilseed rape rotation was done, and the treatments were comprised without amendments (PA0) and with 15 000 kg ha−1 biochar (PA1), 15 000 kg ha−1 oyster shell (PA2), and 7500 kg ha−1 biochar and 7500 kg ha−1 oyster shell\u0000(PA3). Results revealed that both oyster shell and biochar reduced the\u0000HOAc-extractable Cd in soil. Compared to PA0, the HOAc-extractable Cd in the PA1, PA2, and PA3 treatments was reduced by 4.76 %–20.79 %, 17.86 %–38.61 %, and 5.95 %–10.89 %, respectively. The cooperative application of biochar and oyster shell reduced the Cd accumulation in brown rice and oilseed by 29.67 % and 19.74 %, respectively, compared to control and thus decreased the hazard quotient (HQ) from the consumption of brown rice and oilseed. The addition of biochar slightly increased soil organic matter. In addition, the available P in the PA2 and PA3 treatments was significantly (p<0.05) increased by 200.96 %–295.92 % and 187.46 %–280.04 % compared to the control. Moreover, the cooperative application of biochar and oyster shell enhanced the activities of urease, catalase, and β-galactosidase by 139.44 %–147.56 %, 10.71 %–34.31 %, and 82.08 %–244.38 %, respectively. These results demonstrated that the utilization of biochar and oyster shell might be an effective pathway to reducing Cd uptake by crops and improving soil fertility and enzyme activities.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"65 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80599635","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. Recent studies have been engaged in estimating the adverse effects of microplastic (MP) on soil quality parameters. Mass concentrations of MP, as found in highly contaminated soils, have been shown to weaken the soil structure, and parts of the edaphon are adversely affected mainly by the <100 µm MP size fraction. However, the vast majority of these studies used pristine particles, which have surface characteristics different from those of environmental MP. Exposed to UV radiation, plastic undergoes photochemical weathering with embrittlement and the formation of surface charge, leading to an alteration of physiochemical behavior. When plastic particles then enter the soil environment, further aging factors appear with yet unknown efficacy. This little explored soil biogeochemical phase includes biofilm cover, decay with enzymes (as shown in laboratory experiments with both conventional and biodegradable plastics), contact with biotic and abiotic acids, oxidants, and uptake by the soil fauna that causes physical fragmentation. Such transformation of the surfaces is assumed to affect soil aggregation processes, soil faunal health, and the transport of plastic colloids and adsorbed solubles. This perspective article encourages us to consider the weathering history of MP in soil experiments and highlights the need for reproducing the surface characteristics of soil MP to conduct laboratory experiments with closer-to-nature results.
{"title":"What comes after the Sun? On the integration of soil biogeochemical pre-weathering into microplastic experiments","authors":"F. Büks, M. Kaupenjohann","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-373-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-373-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Recent studies have been engaged in estimating the adverse effects of microplastic (MP) on soil quality parameters. Mass concentrations of MP, as found in highly contaminated soils, have been shown to weaken the soil structure, and parts of the edaphon are adversely affected mainly by the\u0000<100 µm MP size fraction. However, the vast majority of these studies used pristine particles, which have surface characteristics different from those of environmental MP. Exposed to UV radiation, plastic\u0000undergoes photochemical weathering with embrittlement and the formation of surface charge, leading to an alteration of physiochemical behavior. When plastic particles then enter the soil environment, further aging factors appear with yet unknown efficacy. This little explored soil biogeochemical phase includes biofilm cover, decay with enzymes (as shown in laboratory experiments with both conventional and biodegradable plastics), contact with biotic and abiotic acids, oxidants, and uptake by the soil fauna that causes physical fragmentation. Such transformation of the surfaces is assumed to affect soil aggregation processes, soil faunal health, and the transport of\u0000plastic colloids and adsorbed solubles. This perspective article encourages us to consider the weathering history of MP in soil experiments and highlights the need for reproducing the surface characteristics of soil MP to conduct laboratory experiments with closer-to-nature results.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"77 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83997866","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-05-20eCollection Date: 2022-01-01DOI: 10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11256
Christopher J Edwards, James T Fitzgerald, Lauren A Heidemann
Introduction: Residents have the important task of updating family members of hospitalized patients, often by telephone. There are limited curricula dedicated to preparing medical students for this task, which will become their responsibility as residents.
Methods: We created a virtual workshop, including four patient cases, to facilitate teaching senior medical students enrolled in an internal medicine residency preparation course. Students alternated role-playing either physician or family member. We assessed performance using a self-assessment rubric before (preworkshop) and after (postworkshop) a didactic session. We compared pre- and postworkshop scores using t tests. We also used a retrospective pre-post survey with a 5-point Likert scale to assess each participant's comfort level, knowledge, and perceived ability.
Results: Thirty-nine students completed the pre- and postworkshop evaluation (response rate: 70%). The mean score on the preworkshop self-assessment was 83% (SD = 9%) and on the postworkshop self-assessment was 94% (SD = 8%; p < .01), with a large effect size of 1.22. Among the 31 students (62%) who completed the survey, there was improvement in comfort level (2.9 vs. 3.7, p < .001), knowledge (2.7 vs. 3.8, p < .001), and perceived ability (2.9 vs. 3.7, p < .001).
Discussion: Our workshop was effective in teaching medical students a structured format for providing telephone updates and was well received. The workshop was also effective when delivered virtually (with videos off) to mimic the non-face-to-face communication that occurs when delivering family updates by telephone. The curriculum could be expanded to other learner groups.
导言：住院医师的一项重要任务是向住院病人的家属提供最新信息，通常是通过电话。专门为医学生准备这项任务的课程有限，而这将成为他们作为住院医生的责任：方法：我们创建了一个虚拟工作坊，其中包括四个病人病例，以方便教授参加内科住院医师培训课程的高年级医学生。学生们交替扮演医生或家庭成员。我们在授课前（工作坊前）和授课后（工作坊后）使用自我评估表对学生的表现进行评估。我们使用 t 检验比较了工作坊前和工作坊后的得分。我们还采用了一项事后回顾调查，用 5 点李克特量表来评估每位学员的舒适度、知识和感知能力：39 名学生完成了工作坊前后的评估（回复率：70%）。工作坊前自我评估的平均得分率为 83%（SD = 9%），工作坊后自我评估的平均得分率为 94%（SD = 8%；P < .01），影响大小为 1.22。在完成调查的 31 名学生（62%）中，舒适度（2.9 vs. 3.7，p < .001）、知识（2.7 vs. 3.8，p < .001）和感知能力（2.9 vs. 3.7，p < .001）均有所提高：我们的研讨会有效地向医科学生传授了提供电话更新的结构化格式，并受到好评。通过虚拟方式（关闭视频）模拟电话告知家属最新情况时的非面对面交流，也能有效提高培训班的效果。该课程可扩展至其他学员群体。
{"title":"\"Patient's Family Wants an Update\": A Curriculum for Senior Medical Students to Deliver Telephone Updates for Hospitalized Patients.","authors":"Christopher J Edwards, James T Fitzgerald, Lauren A Heidemann","doi":"10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11256","DOIUrl":"10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11256","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Residents have the important task of updating family members of hospitalized patients, often by telephone. There are limited curricula dedicated to preparing medical students for this task, which will become their responsibility as residents.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We created a virtual workshop, including four patient cases, to facilitate teaching senior medical students enrolled in an internal medicine residency preparation course. Students alternated role-playing either physician or family member. We assessed performance using a self-assessment rubric before (preworkshop) and after (postworkshop) a didactic session. We compared pre- and postworkshop scores using <i>t</i> tests. We also used a retrospective pre-post survey with a 5-point Likert scale to assess each participant's comfort level, knowledge, and perceived ability.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Thirty-nine students completed the pre- and postworkshop evaluation (response rate: 70%). The mean score on the preworkshop self-assessment was 83% (<i>SD</i> = 9%) and on the postworkshop self-assessment was 94% (<i>SD</i> = 8%; <i>p</i> < .01), with a large effect size of 1.22. Among the 31 students (62%) who completed the survey, there was improvement in comfort level (2.9 vs. 3.7, <i>p</i> < .001), knowledge (2.7 vs. 3.8, <i>p</i> < .001), and perceived ability (2.9 vs. 3.7, <i>p</i> < .001).</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>Our workshop was effective in teaching medical students a structured format for providing telephone updates and was well received. The workshop was also effective when delivered virtually (with videos off) to mimic the non-face-to-face communication that occurs when delivering family updates by telephone. The curriculum could be expanded to other learner groups.</p>","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"121 1","pages":"11256"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9120304/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83703932","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Li Wang, Xiaomei Ye, Han J Hu, Jing Du, Yonglan Xi, Zongzhuan Shen, Jing Lin, Deli Chen
Abstract. The roles of microorganisms in enhancing crop production have been demonstrated for a range of cropping systems. Most studies to date, however, have been confined to a limited number of locations, making it difficult to identify general soil biotic and abiotic characteristics underpinning the yield-promotion across various locations. This knowledge gap limits our capacity to harness soil microbiome to improve crop production. Here we used high-throughput amplicon sequencing to investigate the common features of bacterial community composition, ecological networks and physicochemical properties in six yield-invigorating and adjacent yield-debilitating orchards. We found that yield-invigorating soils exhibited higher contents of organic matter than yield-debilitating soils and harbored unique bacterial communities. Greater alpha diversity and higher relative abundances of Planctomycetota and Chloroflexota were observed in yield-debilitating soils. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that yield-invigorating soils displayed a greater number of functionally interrelated modules (meta-modules) and a higher proportion of negative links to positive links. Chloroflexota was recognized as a keystone taxon in manipulating the interaction of bacterial communities in yield-invigorating soils. Altogether, we provide evidence that yield-invigorating soils across a range of locations appear to share common features, including accumulation of soil organic matter, higher microbial diversity, enrichment of key taxa like Chloroflexota and maintaining a competitive network. These findings have implications for science-based guidance for sustainable food production.
{"title":"Soil bacterial communities triggered by organic matter inputs associates with a high-yielding pear production","authors":"Li Wang, Xiaomei Ye, Han J Hu, Jing Du, Yonglan Xi, Zongzhuan Shen, Jing Lin, Deli Chen","doi":"10.5194/soil-8-337-2022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-337-2022","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The roles of microorganisms in enhancing crop production\u0000have been demonstrated for a range of cropping systems. Most studies to\u0000date, however, have been confined to a limited number of locations, making\u0000it difficult to identify general soil biotic and abiotic characteristics\u0000underpinning the yield-promotion across various locations. This knowledge\u0000gap limits our capacity to harness soil microbiome to improve crop\u0000production. Here we used high-throughput amplicon sequencing to investigate\u0000the common features of bacterial community composition, ecological networks\u0000and physicochemical properties in six yield-invigorating and adjacent\u0000yield-debilitating orchards. We found that yield-invigorating soils\u0000exhibited higher contents of organic matter than yield-debilitating soils\u0000and harbored unique bacterial communities. Greater alpha diversity and\u0000higher relative abundances of Planctomycetota and Chloroflexota were\u0000observed in yield-debilitating soils. Co-occurrence network analysis\u0000revealed that yield-invigorating soils displayed a greater number of\u0000functionally interrelated modules (meta-modules) and a higher proportion of\u0000negative links to positive links. Chloroflexota was recognized as a keystone\u0000taxon in manipulating the interaction of bacterial communities in\u0000yield-invigorating soils. Altogether, we provide evidence that\u0000yield-invigorating soils across a range of locations appear to share common\u0000features, including accumulation of soil organic matter, higher microbial\u0000diversity, enrichment of key taxa like Chloroflexota and maintaining a\u0000competitive network. These findings have implications for science-based\u0000guidance for sustainable food production.\u0000","PeriodicalId":22015,"journal":{"name":"Soil Science","volume":"11 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78175665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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