An imperative cornerstone of modern organic synthesis lies in the ability to actively shape molecular frameworks through selective bond formation. Carbon–carbon (C–C) bonds provide the fundamental backbone of organic molecules, whereas carbon–heteroatom linkages, particularly C–N, C–O, and C–S bonds, impart essential structural and functional diversity that underpins chemical reactivity, bioactivity, and material properties. Over the past few decades, the evolution from classical strategies such as Wurtz coupling, Grignard addition, aldol condensation, and nucleophilic substitutions towards catalytic methodologies has transformed the synthetic landscape. Transition-metal catalysis, exemplified by Suzuki, Heck, and Negishi cross-couplings, has enabled highly efficient, selective, and mild routes for C–C and carbon–heteroatom bond construction. Parallel developments in photocatalysis and organocatalysis have expanded the synthetic toolbox by offering environmentally benign and metal-free alternatives with broad substrate tolerance. These advances have not only enhanced regio- and stereocontrol but also facilitated late-stage functionalization of complex molecules, thereby streamlining the synthesis of bioactive compounds and functional materials. Increasing emphasis on sustainability has further driven the integration of green chemistry principles, including renewable feedstocks, recyclable catalysts, and energy-efficient conditions. This review highlights recent catalytic innovations in C–C, C–N, C–O, and C–S bond formation, discusses their mechanistic foundations, and underscores their implications in medicinal chemistry, materials science, and sustainable synthesis.
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