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Terrorism as Third Front: The Radicalization of the New Left in Italy and West Germany 恐怖主义作为第三战线:意大利和西德新左派的激进化
Pub Date : 2021-02-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.37
Petra Terhoeven
Which factors were responsible for the radicalization of the 1968 protest movement? Why did Germans and Italians develop such a fascination with the notion of guerilla warfare? And why were the terrorist organizations that developed there so long-lived? The reasons are partly to be found in unresolved problems of postfascist societies. New Left activists criticized the lack of domestic democracy and idealized the “anti-imperialist” fighters in the global south. But as this chapter shows, radicalization also developed through transnational interaction in the European public spheres, specifically through a mixture of solidarity and rivalry between the Red Army Faction and the Red Brigades. The history of German and Italian left-wing terrorisms was, therefore, closely connected by multiple symbolic ties from the first shootings to the final showdown of the kidnapping and murder of Hanns-Martin Schleyer during the German Autumn of 1977 and of Aldo Moro just a few months later.
哪些因素导致了1968年抗议运动的激进化?为什么德国人和意大利人对游击战的概念如此着迷?为什么在那里发展起来的恐怖组织如此长寿?部分原因在于后法西斯社会尚未解决的问题。新左派激进分子批评国内缺乏民主,并将全球南方的“反帝国主义”战士理想化。但正如本章所示,激进化也是通过欧洲公共领域的跨国互动而发展起来的,特别是通过红军派和红色旅之间的团结和竞争的混合而发展起来的。因此,德国和意大利左翼恐怖主义的历史,从最初的枪击事件,到1977年德国秋天汉斯-马丁·施莱耶(hans - martin Schleyer)和几个月后奥尔多·莫罗(Aldo Moro)被绑架和谋杀的最后决战,被多重象征性联系在一起。
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引用次数: 0
“Deeds, Not Words”: Right-Wing Terrorism in Twentieth-Century Europe “行而不言”:二十世纪欧洲的右翼恐怖主义
Pub Date : 2021-02-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.035
Daniella A. Schmidt, Michael Sturm
This chapter focuses on the manifestations and characteristics of right-wing terrorism in twentieth-century Europe, particularly on developments in Germany and Italy. When viewed from a comparative perspective, a central characteristic for right-wing terrorism is the Tatglaube, the faith in deeds. Although the worldview justifying such terrorism is grounded in racism, ethnocentrism, and nationalistic concepts of superiority, the decisive factor is violence as an end in itself, a violence that generally forgoes any justifying pattern of argument and strives to annihilate the enemy physically. The repertoire of actions taken and the formulized language of right-wing terrorism have remained largely unchanged throughout the twists and turns of twentieth-century history. Nevertheless, it is possible to differentiate various phases of right-wing terrorism, which were also influenced, in turn, by the political and societal environment. Despite the ethnocentric and nationalistic worldview from which this terrorism springs, it also becomes evident here that right-wing terrorism has always been marked by transnational influences, particularly since the end of the twentieth century.
本章着重于20世纪欧洲右翼恐怖主义的表现和特征,特别是在德国和意大利的发展。从比较的角度来看,右翼恐怖主义的一个核心特征是Tatglaube,即对行动的信仰。尽管为这种恐怖主义辩护的世界观是建立在种族主义、民族中心主义和民族优越感的基础上的,但决定性的因素是暴力本身就是目的,这种暴力通常会放弃任何正当的论点模式,并努力从身体上消灭敌人。右翼恐怖主义采取的一系列行动和程式化的语言在20世纪的曲折历史中基本上没有改变。然而,可以区分右翼恐怖主义的各个阶段,这些阶段反过来也受到政治和社会环境的影响。尽管这种恐怖主义源于种族中心主义和民族主义世界观,但这里也很明显,右翼恐怖主义一直具有跨国影响的特征,特别是自20世纪末以来。
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引用次数: 0
Terrorism and Theocracy: The Radical Resistance Movement against Roman Rule in Judea 恐怖主义与神权政治:犹太反对罗马统治的激进抵抗运动
Pub Date : 2021-02-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.002
Kai Trampedach
This chapter discusses a case of ancient terrorism, the fight of the most radical branch of the Judean resistance movement against Roman rule in the first century ce by means of kidnapping and assassination. Ancient Judean terrorism was not only provoked by the foreign occupation, but also fed on the fertile ground of social antagonisms within Judean society. The zealot ideology of the Sicarii was fueled by theocratic, even apocalyptic beliefs, closely intertwined with radically egalitarian visions of society. Spectacular actions against the Roman Empire and its indigenous collaborators finally instigated the Judean War. Though modern terrorism has many different facets, the religiously motivated Islamic type shows parallels with the ancient Judean paradigm—in methods, but even more in ideology, which is based on comparable political and social conditions.
本章讨论了古代恐怖主义的一个案例,即公元一世纪犹太抵抗运动中最激进的分支以绑架和暗杀的方式反抗罗马统治。古代犹太的恐怖主义不仅是由外国占领引起的,而且是在犹太社会内部社会对立的肥沃土壤上滋生的。西西里派狂热的意识形态受到神权甚至末世信仰的推动,与激进的平等主义社会愿景紧密交织在一起。针对罗马帝国及其本土合作者的壮观行动最终引发了犹太战争。尽管现代恐怖主义有许多不同的方面,但宗教动机的伊斯兰类型显示出与古代犹太范例的相似之处-在方法上,但在意识形态上更是如此,这是基于可比较的政治和社会条件。
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引用次数: 0
The Evolution of Jewish Terrorism 犹太恐怖主义的演变
Pub Date : 2021-02-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.020
Ami Pedahzur, A. Perliger
While Jewish violence and terrorism, both early and contemporary, is closely correlated with one particular territory—Palestine or Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel)—the chapter utilizes Rapoport’s four-waves framework in order to show that the evolution of Jewish terrorism was shaped by global dynamics and developments. More specifically, we will argue that whereas Jewish terrorism in Palestine and later in Israel consists of only two periods—the nationalist (1930s–1950s), which corresponds with the anticolonial wave, and its derivative, the nationalist-religious (1970s–present), which overlaps with the religious wave—the two missing waves, both of which were left-wing revolutionary, had a tremendous impact on political and social processes in Israel in general, and on the evolution of Jewish terrorism in particular. We conclude by discussing the implications of the similarities and differences between Jewish religious violence and other types of religious political violence.
虽然犹太人的暴力和恐怖主义,无论是早期的还是当代的,都与一个特定的领土——巴勒斯坦或以色列土地——密切相关,但这一章利用了拉波波特的四波框架,以表明犹太恐怖主义的演变受到全球动态和发展的影响。更具体地说,我们将认为,尽管巴勒斯坦和后来在以色列的犹太恐怖主义只包括两个时期——民族主义时期(20世纪30年代至50年代),它与反殖民浪潮相对应,以及它的衍生物,民族主义宗教时期(20世纪70年代至今),它与宗教浪潮重叠——这两个缺失的浪潮,都是左翼革命,对以色列的政治和社会进程产生了巨大的影响。尤其是犹太恐怖主义的演变最后,我们讨论了犹太宗教暴力与其他类型的宗教政治暴力之间的异同。
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引用次数: 0
The Invention of Terrorism in Nineteenth Century Europe, Russia, and the United States 恐怖主义在19世纪欧洲、俄罗斯和美国的发明
Pub Date : 2021-02-10 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.010
Carola Dietze
This chapter examines the emergence of terrorism. It argues that five men invented terrorist tactics in a transnational learning process between 1858 and 1866 in Europe, the United States, and Russia. After a systematic reflection on terrorism’s sociopolitical logic and its preconditions, the chapter analyzes Felice Orsini’s attempt to assassinate Napoleon III and the media reactions. This case is interpreted as the beginning of the invention of terrorism. News of Orsini’s deed traveled to America and had inspired John Brown, who changed his tactics from guerilla war to terrorism when he planned his raid on Harpers Ferry. Oskar Wilhelm Becker, John Wilkes Booth, and Dmitrii Vladimirovich Karakozov were the three most significant imitators of both Orsini’s and Brown’s deeds. They finalized the tactic by universalizing it politically and developing the claim of responsibility (Bekennerschreiben). With these developments the terrorist tactic as we know it today was fully developed.
本章探讨恐怖主义的出现。它认为,1858年至1866年间,在欧洲、美国和俄罗斯的跨国学习过程中,有五个人发明了恐怖主义战术。在系统反思恐怖主义的社会政治逻辑和前提条件之后,本章分析了菲利斯·奥尔西尼刺杀拿破仑三世的企图和媒体的反应。这一案件被解释为恐怖主义诞生的开端。奥尔西尼行为的消息传到了美国,并启发了约翰·布朗,当他计划袭击哈珀斯渡口时,他把他的战术从游击战改为恐怖主义。奥斯卡·威廉·贝克尔、约翰·威尔克斯·布斯和德米特里·弗拉基米罗维奇·卡拉科佐夫是奥尔西尼和布朗的三个最重要的模仿者。他们通过在政治上普遍化和发展责任声明(Bekennerschreiben)最终确定了这一策略。随着这些发展,我们今天所知的恐怖主义策略得到了充分发展。
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引用次数: 0
Religious Terrorism at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century 二十一世纪之交的宗教恐怖主义
Pub Date : 2021-01-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.032
M. Juergensmeyer
In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, extreme violence associated with religion has become a global problem, appearing in Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures. Religion is associated with this violence but is not the cause of it. In other words, religion is not the problem, but it is problematic, in two ways. One is the way that religious identities and ideologies have become part of a global rebellion against the European Enlightenment notion of a secular state. The other is the way that certain features of religious actions and images—such as the performance of religious ritual and the awesome notion of cosmic war—are appropriated by violent actors seeking to justify their savage attempts at power and cloak them in religious garb.
在二十世纪末和二十一世纪初,与宗教有关的极端暴力已成为一个全球性问题,出现在基督教、犹太教、穆斯林、锡克教、印度教和佛教文化中。宗教与这种暴力有关,但不是其原因。换句话说,宗教不是问题,但它在两个方面存在问题。其一,宗教身份和意识形态已经成为全球反抗欧洲启蒙运动世俗国家理念的一部分。另一种是宗教行为和形象的某些特征——比如宗教仪式的表演和宇宙战争的可怕概念——被暴力行为者挪用,他们试图为自己野蛮的权力企图辩护,并为自己披上宗教外衣。
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引用次数: 0
“The Beauteous Terrorist”: Russian Women and Terrorism in Literature at the Turn of the Century “美丽的恐怖分子”:世纪之交的俄罗斯女性与文学中的恐怖主义
Pub Date : 2021-01-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.014
Ana Siljak
Based partly on sensationalized journalistic accounts of the lives of famous Russian terrorists, such as Vera Zasulich, and partly on the memoirs of radicals such as Sergei Kravchinksii, English-language novels at the turn of the nineteenth century depicted female terrorists as fascinating and, for the most part, beautiful. Embodying seemingly contradictory gender characteristics, female terrorists were described as both ruthless and compassionate, violent and kind. Given the supposedly tyrannical nature of the Russian regime, their revolutionary devotion was fully justified. Therefore, despite the need to adopt masculine bravery and heroism, they were still fully feminine, and often alluring. They became heroines, or “beauteous terrorists.”
19世纪之交的英语小说,部分基于对著名的俄罗斯恐怖分子(如维拉·扎苏利奇)生活的耸人听闻的新闻报道,部分基于谢尔盖·克拉夫钦克西(Sergei Kravchinksii)等激进分子的回忆录,将女性恐怖分子描绘成迷人的,而且大部分都是美丽的。女性恐怖分子体现了看似矛盾的性别特征,她们被描述为既无情又富有同情心,既暴力又善良。鉴于俄罗斯政权被认为是暴虐的本质,他们对革命的热爱是完全合理的。因此,尽管需要采用男性的勇敢和英雄主义,但它们仍然完全是女性化的,而且往往是诱人的。她们成了女英雄,或者“美丽的恐怖分子”。
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引用次数: 0
Early Modern Forerunners of Terrorism in Europe 近代早期欧洲恐怖主义的先驱
Pub Date : 2021-01-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.005
J. Dillinger
First, this chapter explores political violence in the late Middle Ages and the early modern era. Even though the term terrorism did not exist before the French Revolution, political phenomena that closely resembled various forms of modern-day terrorism have been known and feared since the fourteenth century. The late Middle Ages and the early modern period witnessed the assassinations of numerous princes. The authorities as well as the populace feared organized gangs of criminals in the pay of rival political or religious leaders. These gangs were said to attack the civilian population using arson and mass poisoning in order to destabilize whole states. The fear of the terrorist “state destroyer” was part and parcel of state building from its very beginning. Secondly, the chapter discusses nineteenth-century historiography about early modern political violence. Nineteenth-century historians refused to interpret early modern political crime as terrorism: they either denounced it as lacking any political concept or vindicated it as justifiable resistance.
首先,本章探讨了中世纪晚期和近代早期的政治暴力。尽管恐怖主义一词在法国大革命之前并不存在,但自14世纪以来,与现代恐怖主义的各种形式非常相似的政治现象已经为人所知并感到恐惧。中世纪晚期和近代早期见证了许多王子被暗杀。当局和民众都害怕有组织的犯罪团伙收受敌对的政治或宗教领袖的贿赂。据说这些帮派通过纵火和大规模投毒来攻击平民,以破坏整个国家的稳定。对恐怖分子“国家破坏者”的恐惧从一开始就是国家建设的一部分。其次,本章讨论了19世纪关于早期现代政治暴力的史学。19世纪的历史学家拒绝将早期现代政治犯罪解释为恐怖主义:他们要么谴责它缺乏任何政治概念,要么将其辩护为正当的抵抗。
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引用次数: 0
Epilogue: Shock and Awe 尾声:震撼与敬畏
Pub Date : 2021-01-13 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.42
C. Verhoeven
This epilogue proposes a conceptual apparatus to explain the paradoxical fact that, as the chapters in this volume amply demonstrate, terrorism’s shocking acts of violence mean simultaneously to immobilize and mobilize its targets’ intellectual and aesthetic functions. It excavates a strand in the history of philosophy—from Plato to Burke, Arendt, Benjamin, and Rancière—that sees shock not as leading to the paralysis of our capacity to perceive and understand events, but rather as being related to thaumazein (wonder, amazement) and theoria. This philosophical understanding of shock not only grounds the logic of terrorism, especially in its classical incarnation as “propaganda of the deed,” but also exposes the roots of a counterlogic that can activate the kind of knowledge required for the development of a genuinely historical theory of terrorism.
这篇结语提出了一个概念性的工具来解释这个矛盾的事实,正如本卷的章节充分证明的那样,恐怖主义令人震惊的暴力行为同时意味着使其目标的智力和审美功能丧失活力和动员起来。它挖掘了哲学史上的一条线索——从柏拉图到伯克、阿伦特、本雅明和朗西弗里斯——这些人认为,震惊并没有导致我们感知和理解事件的能力瘫痪,而是与thaumazein(惊奇、惊奇)和理论有关。这种对冲击的哲学理解不仅为恐怖主义的逻辑奠定了基础,特别是在其经典化身“行为宣传”中,而且还揭示了一种反逻辑的根源,这种反逻辑可以激活一种真正的恐怖主义历史理论发展所需的知识。
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引用次数: 0
Anticolonial Terrorism: Egypt and the Muslim Brotherhood to 1954 《反殖民恐怖主义:埃及与穆斯林兄弟会至1954年》
Pub Date : 1900-01-01 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199858569.013.021
M. Sedgwick
This chapter looks at the rise of anticolonial terrorism in Egypt, and especially at the role played by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. It argues that assassination became established among anticolonial nationalists in Egypt before the Brotherhood was founded and was then briefly practiced by the Brotherhood. The Brotherhood, however, generally preferred other varieties of violence, which it understood as jihad. Some of these were more obviously acts of political violence than others. The use of violence was never part of the Brotherhood’s main strategy, however, and in the end it proved disastrous for them. They definitively abandoned terrorism in about 1968.
本章着眼于埃及反殖民主义恐怖主义的兴起,特别是埃及穆斯林兄弟会所扮演的角色。它认为,在兄弟会成立之前,暗杀在埃及的反殖民主义民族主义者中已经确立,然后兄弟会短暂地实施了暗杀。然而,穆兄会通常更喜欢其他形式的暴力,他们将其理解为圣战。其中一些是比其他更明显的政治暴力行为。然而,使用暴力从来都不是穆兄会的主要策略,而且最终证明暴力对他们来说是灾难性的。他们在1968年左右彻底放弃了恐怖主义。
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引用次数: 0
期刊
The Oxford Handbook of the History of Terrorism
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